Selections for reading 



Agriculture 
Farm Stock 



1919-1920 




State board of education 
Hartford Connecticut 



". of 1). 

JAN 6 |920 



SF6>7 



Calendar for Farm Stock — Standards vii-viii 



Pupils — i Cut pictures and articles from farm papers about 
the subjects listed below 
2 Paste into note-books according to monthly topics 



Month 



Lesson 



Subject 



September 


1 


Exhibiting garden produce 




2 


Exhibiting farm stock and poultry 


October 


1 


Types of horses 




2 


Breeds of horses 




3 and 4 


Feeding horses 


November 


1 and 2 


The care of horses 




3 and 4 


Harness and harnessing 


December 


1 


Types of sheep 




2 


Breeds of sheep 




3 


Feeding of sheep 




4 


Care of sheep 


January 


1 


Types and breeds of dairy cattle 




2 


Types and breeds of beef cattle 




3 and 4 


Types and kinds of feed 


February 


1 and 2 


Feeding of dairy cattle 




3 and 4 


The care and management of the herd 


March 


1 


Types of hogs 




2 and 3 


Breeds of hogs 


April 


4 


Housing of hogs 




1 and 2 


Feeding of hogs 




3 and 4 


The care and diseases of hogs 


May 


1 


Milk 




2 


The Babcock tester and its uses 




3 and 4 


Dairy products 


June 


1 


Calves 




2 


Rabbits and hares 




3 and 4 


Care and feeding of rabbits 


July 


1 and 2 


Bees 




3 and 4 


Care and diseases of bees 


August 


1 and 2 


Pastures 




3 and 4 


Soiling crops 



Supplementary Reading — Farm Stock 

The Farmers' Bulletins given below may be secured free of charge 
by making a list of the numbers wanted and sending it to the United 
States Senator or Congressman who represents your district 

Prices of books may be learned through inquiry from publisher 
Horses types and breeds 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 179 619 779 803 952 

Text book— C W Gay Productive Horse Husbandry J B Lippincott 
Company 

Care and feeding of horses 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 587 667 779 803 

Text Book— W H Jordan The Feeding of Animals Macmillan Co 

Sheep 

Feeding 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 455 485 508 576 578 5526 810 

840 929 
Text Book-nDoane Sheep Feeding and Farm Management Ginn 
&Co 



Cows 

Dairy type 

Farmers' bulletin Number 893 
Feeding 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 578 743 
Care of dairy cows 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 55 355 518 602 743 777 

Text Book— C H Eckles Dairy and Milk Production Mac- 
millan Company 

Hogs 

Breeds 

Farmers bulletins Numbers 566 614 765 840 874 906 913 
Text Book— William Diertich Swine Saunders Publishing Com- 
pany 

Dairy products 

Milk and dairy products 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 413 490 541 602 623 689 748 876 
Care of calf 

Farmers' bulletin Number 777 
Sanitary milk production 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 413 602 748 

Text Book— H H Wing Milk and its Products Macmillan Co 

Rabbits 

Farmers' bulletin Number 496 
Dairy study 
Pasturage 
Alfalfa 

Farmers' bulletin Number 339 
Silage 
Farmers' bulletins Numbers 578 855 

Cattle breeders associations 

Pictures and literature concerning pure bred stock may be secured 
by writing to the following 

American Jersey Cattle Club 324 W 23rd St New York City 
Ayrshire Breeders' Association Brandon Vt 
Brown Swiss Breeders' Association Middleburgh N Y 
Dutch Belted Breeders' Association Easton Pa 
Guernsey Breeders' Association Peterboro N H 
Holstein-Friesian Association Brattleboro Vt 

Beef cattle 

Farmers' bulletins Numbers 22 346 578 612 635 

Text Book— H W Mumford Beef Production Published by the 
Author Urbana 111 

Armour and Company Chicago 111 will send an illustrated colored 
calendar of beef cattle sheep and hogs 

Bees 

Farmers' bulletin 496 



Swine breeders' associations 

The following swine breeders' associations will send illustrated 

material 
American Berkshire Association Springfield 111 
Chester White Record Association Rochester Ind 
American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Association Chicago 111 
American Yorkshire Club White Bear Lake Minn 
American Tamworth Swine Record Association Hamburg Mich 

Sheep breeders' associations 

The following sheep breeders' associations will send illustrated 

material 
Hampshire Down Breeders' Association Nottawa Mich 
American Rambouillett Sheep Breeders' Association Milford Ohio 
American Shropshire Registry Assocation LaFayette Ind 
American Southdown Breeders' Association Springfield 111 

Horse breeders' associations 

The following horse breeders' associations have illustated materials 
American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association Lawrenceburg Ky 
American Trotting Register Association Chicago 111 
The Thoroughbred Horse The Jocky Club New York City 

Projects 
Garden and field produce 

1 Unit Garden 

2 One or more square rods of 

corn 

potatoes 

onions 

soy beans 

any vegetable 

hay 

clover 

alfalfa. 

3 One or more square rods of any one of the following grains 

wheat 

rye 

oats 

millet 

buckwheat 

Farm stock projects 

1 Feeding and care of a horse for four months 

2 Raising of a colt (2 years) 

3 Raising of a calf (2 years) 

4 Milk record with Babcock tester for one or more cows for 

three months 

5 Care and feeding of one or more pigs (one season) 

6 Care and feeding of one or more lambs (one season) 

7 Making 25 pounds butter (project for girls) 

8 Making 25 pounds cottage cheese (project for girls) 

9 Care and rearing of one pair of rabbits 
10 Raising of bees 

Those who have no opportunity for the above may do extra note- 
book work and reading. Possibly models of farm stock equipment may 
be made 

An Accomplishment Certificate in Agriculture will be given for the 
successful completion of each of the above projects 



Facts — Farm Stock for Standards vii-viii 

i Good vegetables must be perfect and true to variety type 

2 Animals for exhibition must be carefully selected cleaned 
and housed 

3 Different kinds of work demand a suitable type of horse 

4 Big horses and big farms keep pace with each other 

5 Successful horsemen vary the amounts and kinds of feed 
to the working needs of individual animals 

6 Kindly treatment regular care and proper housing keep the 
farm horse in condition to do good work 

7 A collar oiled twice a month and a harness oiled twice a 
year increases the usefulness of both harness and horse 

8 For centuries sheep have provided men with both food and 
clothing 

9 New breeds indicate improvement in type 

io Cleanliness is the first essential to good feeding. Feeding 

is the first essential to good stock 
ii New England farms are well equipped to profitably raise 

more mutton sheep 

12 Pure bred dairy cows produce the largest financial returns 

13 Carloads of beef cattle are being shipped from the New 
England hills 

14 A balanced ratio produces the most milk at the least cost 

15 New England farmers save money by growing legumes and 
ensilage for their cattle 

16 Loud talking swearing and rough handling are not per- 
mitted in well managed dairies 

17 The market is demanding pigs raised to 200 pounds in six 
months 

18 Hogs are among the most important animals raised on the 
farm for meat or profit 

19 Hogs need as clean wholesome well-lighted quarters as 
other animals 

20 Hogs do not relish sour putrid swill nor does it make as 
clean pork as will good pasturage and grain 

21 Most hog diseases may be prevented by cleanliness 

22 Freshly drawn milk is pure. The dairy man is responsible 
for allowing bacteria to enter it 

23 The Babcock Tester has developed the science of dairying; 
more than any other invention 

24 The dairy products from one cow are worth more than the 
meat produced from five beef cattle 

25 Whole and skimmed milk contains substance called vitamines 
without which young animals would die 

26 The people of Europe eat great quantities of rabbit meat 

2j Rabbits may be grown in locations and on premises where- 
other live stock would not be permitted 

28 Bees are useful to man to pollenize fruit blossoms and to. 
produce honey 



29 A hive of bees may make from 50 to 100 pounds of surplus 
honey in good seasons 

30 A well-kept pasture saves time money and labor for every 
dairyman 

31 When summer patsures dry green crops must be fed to 
cows to keep up their milk supply 

Review Chart for Farm Stock 
Horses 
Sheep 
Cattle 
Swine 
Rabbits 

i Types (based upon purpose) 
ii Breeds 
iii Uses 
iv Products 

1 names 

2 manufactured 
v Selection of stock 

vi Care of young 
vii Care of mature stock 
viii Feeding 

1 type to be fed 

2 feeds 

a composition — nutrients 
b home grown 
c purchased 

3 feeding 

a amount of grain 

b amount of roughage 

c pasture 

d green food 

e water 

f salt 

4 ratio 

a purpose for balancing 
b ratio 

5 systems 

a summer 

b winter _^ 

c young stock 
d mature stock 
ix Housing 
x Disease and insects 

First September Lesson 

Exhibiting Garden Produce 

Probably the largest display in every school fair is the 
vegetable section. Three important things must be remembered 
about this class of products. They are when to gather products 
what to pick and how to prepare products 



Vegetables should be picked when in prime condition for 
eating provided crops gathered are not out of season. An in- 
stance of this out-of -season harvesting is picking summer squash 
or sweet corn for an October exhibit. In this event those speci- 
mens best suited for seed would be placed first. As to the hour 
of the day vegetables should be gathered when not wilted and 
as near the hour of entering the exhibit as possible 

Only the best products should be gathered but a few extra 
ones should be selected to allow for grading and to replace those 
injured by accident. Uniformity is of great importance. Pro- 
ducts must be uniform in size shape color texture degree of 
ripeness and if a root crop in length of leaf stem. They must 
be true to type. By this is meant that if a tomato is a Bonny 
Best it must have Bonny Best characteristics and not have large 
size and rough green shoulders like the Ponderosa nor irregular 
lobes like the Earliana. In the case of corn if there are a few 
kernels of yellow seed in an ear of Stowell's Evergreen it is 
probable that the ear is partly Stowell's and partly Golden 
Bantam. Another point is the matter of blemishes. Products 
injured by weeds diseases harvesting or preparing should be 
culled out. Last but not least is quality. Products that have 
made slow growth are woody tough or bitter. Those making too 
rapid growth tend to be too soft and tender. Overgrowth causes 
lack of. flavor. Overripeness or wilting leads to loss of good 
eating qualities 

The number of specimens will vary as shown in the follow- 
ing table and may vary according to the demands of different 
catalogs. How each is prepared varies also. In general how- 
ever washing is done with a sponge or cloth never with a brush 
before the dirt dries on. Stems are invariably left on. With the 
root crops about two inches of the stems are left on. Clipping 
should be done with shears or sharp knife. With leeks and 
radishes the entire top is left on. If late in the season the en- 
tire tops of root crops are removed and the scar neatly trimmed. 
In the case of corn the husk is removed and the butt nearly cut 
down. The greens and garnishes are generally left with root 
on but the roots however must be as carefully washed as the tops 



Group i Several specimens 


Group 


i 


Dried product 


20 each 




h 


Pt 


each 


a 


string beans 






a 


peas 


b 


peas in pod 






b 


beans 


c 


Brussels sprouts 










Group iii Sin 


*le specimens 


Group iv 


Root crops 


1 each 




5 


each 




a 


cabbage 






a 


carrots 


b 


cauliflower 






b 


kohl-rabi 


c 


celery 






c 


leeks 


d 


chard 






d 


onions 


e 


cucumber 






e 


parsnips 


f 


egg plant 






f 


radishes 


g 


melons 






cr 


rutabagas 


h 
i 


pumpkins 

squashes 






h 
i 


salsify 
turnips 



Group v Plates 


Gi 


•oup 


vi Greens and 


5 each 

a okra 
b peppers 
c tomatoes 
d sweet corn 






1 plant each 
a kale 
b lettuce 
c parsley 
d sage 
e spinacr 



garnishes 



Fact Good vegetables must be perfect and true to variety and type 
Words to be defined 

specimens uniformity characteristics 

garnishes flavor 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Exhibiting farm stock and poultry 

2 Aim To learn how to prepare farm stock and poultry for the 

fair 

3 Home questions 

a What special care is taken of farm stock or poultry in 
preparation for exhibiting? 

b What qualities are considered in selecting animals for 
exhibition 

c How are they housed and fed?' 

d What animals can you exhibit? 
b Work for home or school activity 

a Make clippings of farm stock which has won prizes 
5 For reading and study 

"Exhibiting Farm Stock" — Readings in Agriculture Farm 

Stock 

Second September Lesson 
Exhibiting Farm Stock and Poultry- 
Rabbits and poultry may be brought to the school fair. See 
to it that the best animal or bird has been selected with regard 
to breed type individual excellence and coat or feathers 

An exhibitor may bring as many rabbits as desired. Be- 
fore the show keep the hutches or boxes in which the rabbits 
are to be exhibited carefully cleaned so that the fur may be in 
the best posssible condition of cleanliness and order. Shavings 
and coarse straw should be the litter at this time. A rabbit is a 
cleanly animal and will slick its coat if given the opportunity. 
A little linseed meal in the grain feed will help to give a gloss to 
the animal's fur 

Good standard hutches or boxes such as are described and 
illustrated in the June lesson will help to show the animal to the 
best advantage. The floor of the hutch should be covered with 
clean shavings or cut straw on the day of the fair. The water 
can should be fastened to the side of the hutch so that the 
animal can not overturn it and soak the litter. Food for one day 
should be provided 

A card must be nailed to each cage stating the name of the 
exhibitor the breed of the animal and its age 

All entries should be in the hall at noon on the day set for 
the fair 



Several weeks before the fair the exhibitor of poultry 
should begin to select and care for the birds which are to be 
shown. Select pictures of the pure bred type of bird and try to 
select the specimen which most nearly approaches the perfect 
type. Special attention should be given to the comb to see that 
it has the proper characteristics and to the legs that they are 
feathered and unfeathered when necessary. If the birds have 
plumage peculiar to breed the specimen most nearly approaching 
the standard for coloring and marking should be selected. Re- 
move all dead broken and defective feathers. No bird having 
scaly legs should ever be exhibited. It is cured by scrubbing 
the shanks with soap and water with a tooth brush drying and 
rubbing with sweet oil or linseed oil 

White birds should never be shown with dirty feathers. 
They are washed with soap and water of 85-90 degree tem- 
perature. Rinse in warm water which has a trace of blueing in 
it to whiten the feathers. Thoroughly dry in a warm room. A 
little corn starch sprinkled among the feathers when thoroughly 
dry will give an added gloss to them. The poultry cages may be 
similar to the rabbit hutches described and should be cared for 
and marked in the same manner 

Fact Animals for exhibition must be carefully selected cleaned and 
housed 

Words to be defined 

exhibitor hutch litter characteristics 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types of horses 

2 Aim To learn the types of horses 

3 Home questions 

a Have pupils write down at home and bring to class 
the various colors of horses seen during the week. Horses 
of certain types and colors indicate certain breeds 

b Have the children observe the horses kept strictly for 
driving and those kept for working. Have them bring to 
school a report upon the differences they saw in size 
length and thickness of legs legs and neck roundness 
of body size of feet and style of action 

c Have some one tell the story or have all write a com- 
position on "Black Beauty" 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Have children bring to school pictures and articles about 
horses and other farm animals which have been cut from 
farm papers. Have them pasted into notebooks accord- 
ing to monthly outline given in front of this book 

b Use these articles to illustrate and supplement the lessons 
when taught. Many assignment questions may be 
answered from them 

5 For reading and study 

"Types of Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 



First October Lesson 
Types of Horses 

Possibly a million years ago the ancestor of the modern 
horse originated in America. It was then nearly the size of 
a fox and had five toes. Only the fossil remains of these 
animals have been found in places like the old lake basins of 
Utah and Wyoming. Scientists believe that while Alaska and 
northeastern Asia were still connected by land the wild horses 
migrated across the isthmus and spread over the fertile plains 
of the old world. The original wild horses of America became 
extinct for none were found here when the Spaniards made 
their first explorations 

Horses were domesticated in Europe before Greece and 
Rome became prominent in human affairs. The methods of 
warfare during the Middle Ages had much to do with develop- 
ing our modern types of horses. During the age of heavy armor 
when a well armed knight weighed about 400 pounds heavy horses 
were necessary to support them. The invention of firearms and 
gunpowder made ponderous horses less necessary than those 
fleet of foot and quick in action 

Heavy horses have been bred and developed for draft 
purposes in which weight size and strength are essential. Draft 
horses weigh 1500 to 2000 pounds and more. They have large 
round heavily-muscled bodies and necks, which are thick and 
broad. Their legs are comparatively short and feet large. These 
massive horses ate docile steady and willingly pull great loads 

The light horses unlike the draft class are intended for 
work where extreme style action or speed and endurance in 
harness or under the saddle are of first importance. These 
horses are quick in action firey high strung and intelligent 



Table of contrasting types 





Heavy or draft 


Light or speed 


weight 


more than 1500 pounds 


less than 1500 pounds 


appearance blocky massive compact 


high active smooth 


neck 


short thick broad 


long thin narrow 


body 


round heavily muscled 


deep light muscled 


legs 


short 


long 


feet 


large 


small 


action 


slow 


quick 



Fact Different kinds of work demand a suitable type of horse 

Words to be defined 

ancestor originate domesticated 

armed knight ponderous 



Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Breeds of horses 

2 Aim To learn the different breeds of horses 

3 Home questions 

a Look for horses with long hair on legs white feet and 

white spot on face 
b Look for heavy horses whose color is dapple gray or 

black 
c Find record of fast horses in community 
■ d How may the age of a horse be told?' 

e With which foot does a horse begin to walk?' 

4 Work for home or school activity 

Note-book work with pictures and clippings of horses 

5 For reading and study "Breeds of Horses" Readings in 
Agriculture Farm Stock 



Second October Lesson 
Breeds of Horses 

The Percheron is the most popular and most widely dis- 
tributed breed of draft horses in the United States. This breed 
originated in a small district of northeastern France known as 
La Perche. It was developed from the descendants of two of 
the oldest known breeds the ponderous Black Horse of Flanders 
and the Arabian which the French government took to that dis- 
trict in 1820 

Individuals weigh from 1600 to 2200 pounds and stand 16 
to 17 hands high (four inches equals one hand). The usual 
colors are dapple gray or black. They have a thick double mane 
an indicator of the breed. They are intelligent gentle capable 
of pulling heavy loads at a quick pace. The Percherons are the 
foundation stock of many of our present day farm horses 

The Clydesdale came from Scotland where there is today 
one of the largest horse farms in the world. It is next to the 
Percheron the most popular type of draft horse in this country. 
It also is a descendant of the Black Horse of Flanders and is 
about the same size and weight as the Percheron 

The colors are usually bay or brown with a white blaze on 
the face. The lower portion of their legs are also usually white. 
This together with the fact that long silky hair always grows 
upon the legs below the knees serve to mark the animal as a 
Clydesdale or Shire. Scottish breeders pride themselves upon 
the fact that they have developed in these animals the soundest 
feet and the quickest walk among the draft breeds 

The English Shire horse is a native of the low-lying coun- 
tries of east-central England. This horse is quite similar in 
appearance to the Clydesdale. Without doubt the Shire and the 
Belgian horses are the largest breeds in the world and many 
people do not care for them because of their sluggishness and 

10 



ponderous awkwardness. Yet for hauling great heavy loads 
through city streets they are unexcelled 

The Hackney French Coach German Coach are of English 
French and German origin respectively. These horses are known 
also as heavy harness horses and in some particulars are rather 
intermediate in their characteristics between the light type like 
the Thoroughbred, and the draft horses. The horses which be- 
long to this class have the ability to draw a heavy carriage or 
wagon at a fair rate of 'Speed. They present a stylish appear- 
ance and to this end have been developed to show a high knee 
action and a well arched neck. If there is any breed of horses 
which may profitably be raised by the New England farmer it 
should be these for they are still held in great favor and the 
supply has hardly equaled the demand. These animals range 
from 15.3 to 16 hands high and weigh 1100 to 1400 pounds. In 
the show ring fashion seems to decree that their tails shall be 
docked 

The English Thoroughbred and the Arabian have been the 
foundation for most of the present day light harness saddle and 
road horses. The Arabian the first established breed has di- 
rectly or indirectly influenced nearly every modern type of both' 
light and draft horses. They weigh 800 to 1000 pounds but 
since they were the constant companions of their masters in the 
deserts they became exceedingly intelligent and second to none 
in beauty stylish action as well as stamina and endurance. The 
American Standard bred pacer and trotter much speedier than 
the original Thoroughbred and Arabian have been developed in 
America for those qualities of speed smart action and courage 
most desired for track horses as well as for pleasure 

Mules are a cross between the donkey and the horse. It is 
a patient gentle creature of great strength and long endurance. 
It will stand hard usage and thrive on rough feed. Mules will 
stand hot climates much better than horses. For this reason and 
because they are comparatively immune to all disease afflicting 
the horse they are largely used in the cotton and sugar planta- 
tions of the south 
Fact Big horses and big farms keep pace with each other 

Words to be defined 

descendants draft horse sluggishness 

16 hands high stamina sugar plantation 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Feeding of horses 

2 Aim To find how much and what kinds of food to feed horses 

3 Home questions 

a What kinds and how much food is fed horses on the home 

farm? 
b Kinds of commercial horse feeds 
c Watering of horses 
d May ensilage be fed to horses? 
e How does the horse move its head when biting off grass? 

why? 
f Does the horse eat facing the wind or facing from the 

wind? 

11 



4 Work for home or school activity 

Note-book clippings on the feeding of horses 
Collect samples of feed few grains of each only 

5 For reading and study 

"Feeding Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Third and Fourth October Lessons 

Feeding Horses 

Compared with other farm animals the digestive tracts of 
the horse are limited in capacity. Its digestive apparatus not 
only is unable to assimilate a great bulk of food but it is more 
delicate than that of the ox hog or sheep. As a result digestive 
troubles are common among horses. The proper feeding °of the 
horse requires greater care and intelligence than the feeding of 
any other farm animal. It is necessary to feed horses frequently 
and in moderate amounts with food that is palatable and of 
medium bulk 

The feeding of the horse is a different problem from the 
feeding of most other animals. This is because it is fed to do 
work which requires muscle and energy while other animals are 
fed for meat milk eggs and so on. Consequently food which 
serves to supply this energy rather than that which lays on fat 
should be fed 

The standard horse ration of this country is oats and tim- 
othy hay or a combination of oats and corn and a mixture of 
timothy and clover hay. For a hard worked or driven horse 
weighing about iooo pounds 12 pounds of oats and 12 pounds 
of timothy hay per day is considered a good ration. Six pounds 
of oats and 6 pounds of corn with 12 pounds of mixed hay is a 
standard ration for farm horses. It has been found by experi- 
mentation however that horses doing moderate work such as 
that on farms will thrive equally as well on some cheaper 
grain when mixed in the proper proportions. The following 
general ration has proven satisfactory. Three parts bran 3 
parts oats 1 part linseed meal. In winter add 3 parts corn 
meal. Feed mixed hay twice daily. In general a horse should be 
daily supplied with about 2.y 2 pounds of food for every 100 
pounds of weight. Two thirds of this amount should be in the 
form of grain. It is interesting to note the many different things 
fed to horses throughout the world. It seems to show that the 
horse will relish many kinds of food if they are clean and whole- 
some. In Arabia where stamina and sinew are famous the prin- 
cipal food is barley and scant herbage. In Ireland most curiously 
dried fish forms a part of the standard diet. In England hay 
oats and beans are fed. On the continent of Europe rye barley 
and inferior wheat make up a large part of the ration. It is not 
so much the kind of food fed but its purity that is essential. The 
label of a well known horse feed shows that the following variety 



12 



of grain and by products are used to make up the ration. Ground 
oats corn and barley wheat middlings hominy feed oat shorts 
oat middlings oat hulls linseed meal corn gluten feed y 2 of 
i% salt. In the south molasses diluted with water one pint to 
one quart per feed and mixed with coarse grains and roughage, 
has kept horses and mules in good working order 

The importance of regularity in feeding cannot be over- 
emphasized. Whatever the feeding stuffs may be the horse 
should be fed regularly and uniformly at all times. It anticipates 
the feeding hour and neighs and coaxes for food with great 
regularity. The work horse should be fed three times each day. 
The morning meal may consist of Y\ the daily ration and must 
be given at least an hour before going to work. The midday 
meal may be another fourth with at least an hour to consume it. 
At night feed the remainder or y 2 the daily ration. Thus the 
heaviest feed comes at night when the horse has ample time to 
chew and digest the food 

During the idle winter months the horse may be roughed 
through by feeding mixed hay well cured corn fodder or other 
roughage and perhaps a little grain. On days when work horses 
are allowed to stand idle the amount of grain should be reduced 
about one half. If the idleness continues beyond three or four 
days the amount of grain may be gradually increased but should 
not reach the full work ration 

It makes little difference when horses are watered provided 
it is not given before meals on one day and on the next day 
after meals. Horses seem to relish a drink before eating then 
to eat roughage and grain. Do not permit a horse to drink to 
excess when it is warm however it is inhumane to deprive an 
animal of all water while doing hot sweaty work 

Salt is an essential of all animal rations. If they do not 
have a piece of rock salt in the manger constantly they often 
chew the wood or old bones or eat dirt in the search for the salt 
which they lack. Horses are fond of carrots. It serves to cool 
the system and assists in the digestion of other foods. Corn 
silage has been fed to horses with varying success. If mouldy 
frozen or sour it is likely to cause severe colic and other in- 
testinal troubles. If of good quality and fed moderately horses 
Team to relish and profit from its succulence 

Fact Successful horsemen vary the amount and kinds of feed to the 
working needs of individual animals 

Words to be defined 

palatable stamina roughage 

colic relish 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic The care of horses 

2 Aim To learn how to care for horses 

13 



Home questions 

& Collect instances of good memory in horses 

b Bring to school a description of interior of best horse 
barn seen 

c Bring to school a list of common ailments of the horse 
which have occurred on the home farm 
Work for home or school activity 

a Look up common unsoundnesses and their cause Secure 
pictures to illustrate 

b Stop at a blacksmith shop. Write down for class dis- 
cussion each operation of the farrier as he shoes a horse 

c becure advertisements giving remedies for common ail- 
ments 

For reading and study 

"The Care of Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 



First and Second November Lessons 
The Care of Horses 

The horse is not especially intelligent but it has a remark- 
able memory. A lesson or habit once learned is difficult to 
change. It long remembers ill-treatment and lack of care. On 
the other hand it readily responds to consideration and good 
treatment. A driver who strikes or jerks because of his anger 
deserves the contempt of all lovers of animal life. Rough 
handling uses up the horse's nervous energy and greatly lessens 
its usefulness. One who will work a team in the heat and dust 
and then allow it to stand over night without cleaning shows 
lack of intelligence about horses or cruelty. Be gentle with 
horses. Nervous excitement deranges the digestive organs. 
Even a horse appreciates a musical voice and kindly intonations 

Too many farmers keep their faithful animals in poorly 
built sheds that have little or no conveniences and that are 
draughty and ill drained. Draughts should be carefully excluded 
from the barn. A horse may stand in the open field without 
taking cold but cannot remain in a draught without suffering ill 
effects^ There should be a good light in the stable. It will cer- 
tainly injure perhaps in time permanently blind a horse to re- 
peatedly take it from a dark stable into the glare of sunlight re- 
flected from snow. Have plenty of clean windows through which 
the purifying sunlight may shine into the stable. Barns in which 
manure dust and cobwebs collect is not one in which horses 
will remain in the best of health. Most farm horses are kept in 
straight stalls. If there is room to provide a box stall it will be 
useful at many times in the life of a horse. If there is plenty of 
little available undrained plank stalls are most practical for coun- 
try conditions but a rack made of two or three inch planks nailed 
one half to three fourths inches apart over a sloping under floor 
is more sanitary. In summer many straight stalls are very hot. 
It should be possible to remove the lowest side plank to permit a 
cooling circulation of air. Bedding serves several purposes. To 

14 



insure comfort to the horse inducing it to lie down thereby 
resting its legs and feet as much as possible. Bedding keeps the 
horse free from stable stains and absorbs the liquid manure. 
Bedding material consists of straws coarse hay sawdust shav- 
ings peat cornstover and leaves. Shavings are clean to use but 
decay with difficulty when spread over the fields 

The work horses appreciate a good grooming night and 
morning. Rubbing and cleaning the skin removes the dandruff 
and stimulates a circulation thereby resting the tired horse and 
renewing vigor for the following day. If the horses' legs are 
muddy or wet at night thoroughly clean them with a short 
handle broom or burlap bag. Without fail horses' shoulders 
must be bathed each night after a day of sweaty hard work. 
The encrusted salt on the shoulders causes sores to form 

Horses that have never been shod have feet well fitted by 
nature for hard usage. Only when horses must constantly travel 
over hard roads is it necessary that they be shod. In some parts 
of the United States shoes are never put on the horses' feet. 
When shoeing is found essential see to it that the farrier brings. 
the outer circular crust of horn to a level with the firm unpared 
sole. This may either be cut or rasped off. Never permit him 
to pare or concave the sole. It is nature's protection against 
injury and disease. The frog in the horse's foot serves, as a 
cushion to help relieve the shock of stepping. Only the broken 
edges should ever be trimmed. Never use a knife to open con- 
tracted heel. To help this trouble have the farrier make the 
shoe slightly higher on the inner upper edge of the shoe on 
which the wall of the hoof will rest. This manner for shoeing 
will tend to spread a hoof and to open the heel 

Horses 
Care 

Not a few of the defects common to the horse should be 
blamed to their owners or users. For example poll evil is fre- 
quently caused by striking the head against a door or stall beam. 
Bit sores indicate a careless or cruel driver. Perhaps an un- 
warmed bit has been thrust into a horse's tender mouth on a 
cold morning and the skin has been pulled off. Fistula on the 
withers and shoulder sores seldom come unless the collar is ill- 
fitting or dirty. Sweeny is the result of a wrench or strain due 
to an ill-fitting collar worn when the horse was young 

In a similar way splints spavins curbs thorough-pins and 
other injuries of the legs are often caused by excessive driving 
or pulling especially of young horses. Misshapen knees and 
ankles are an evidence of hard usage. Greased heel foul smell- 
ing thrush and scratches come from damp and filthy stalls. 
Roaring or wind broken horses is the result of too rapid and 
prolonged driving. Heaves usually come from eating dusty 
food. Cribbing is the sign 'of neglected teeth 

15 



When the horse is young teach it carefully just the things 
that shall be done in later life. The vices which reduce the value 
of many horses and make them difficult to handle are often due 
to improper training of the colt. Halter pulling starts when the 
colt is frightened and breaks away or else being tied with an 
old and easily broken halter finds that it can gain its freedom 
easily in this manner. Balking often is an indication of the lack 
of intelligence and patience on the part of the trainer fully as 
much as stubbornness on the part of the horse. Biting often 
starts from teasing and kicking often has its origin in fright 
caused by something loose about the harness or wagon when the 
colt was first broken 

Fact kindly treatment regular care and proper housing keep the 
farm horse in condition to do good work 

Words to be defined 

memory intonation farrier fistula 

cribbing colt 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Harness and harnessing 

2 Aim To learn the parts of a harness and how to harness a 

work horse 

3 Home questions 

a Why are blinders useful and harmful? 

b Why are bits warmed in winter before putting them into 

the horses' mouths?' 
c Observe and describe a single harness and a double 

harness 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Observe the way tugs are made on various heavy harness 
b Observe harnesses which have saddles over the horse's 
back and those which do not. To what are the hold- 
back straps hitched in each kind 
c If possible have some farmer teach the children how to 
harness a pair of horses 

5 For reading and study 

"Harness and Harnessing Readings in Agriculture Farm 
Stock 

Third and Fourth November Lessons 
Harness and Harnessing 

Names of parts of heavy truck and farm harness 

i Bridle The harness on the head of the horse 

1 crown piece the strap behind the ears 

2 brow band the strap in front of the ears 

3 winker stays connecting the brow band with blinders 

4 winker or blinders flat leather pieces beside the eyes 

5 throat latch strap under the throat from side to side 

6 cheek piece strap holding blinders 

7 nose band strap across nose 

8 bit in horse's mouth 

9 check strap from bit to hames holding up 

horse's head 

16 



ii Collar and hames 



10 
11 

12 
13 



collar goes around neck of horse small end up 



hames 
concord bolt 
pole straps 



14 Martingales 



iii Back harness 

15 forked back straps 

16 belly girt 

17 saddle 

18 breeching or hold 

back 

19 hip straps 

20 traces 

21 heel chains 

22 lazy straps 

23 hold back straps 



24 lines 



Iron or wooden pieces fitting into collar 
joins traces to hames 
running from one side of hames through 
ring in one end of neck yoke to hames 
on the other side. The neck yoke is the 
cross pole in front of the horse. On 
wagons it is often double on farm im- 
plements single 

run from neck yoke between two front 
legs to belly girt sometimes from collar 
also to neck yoke 



straps running from both sides of hames 
meeting in ring over rump of horses 
strap connecting traces under belly 
over horse's back 

straps running around thighs 

holds up breeching 

connect hames with wagon 

chains hitching traces to evener on wagon 

holds up traces at breeching 

on some harnesses run from breeching 

rings through belly girt and back on 

others runs from breeching rings through 

rings in the tugs at the saddle and back 

to breeching 

forked reins running from bit to driver 







22 21 



17 



Harnessing 

in thTee" parts 1 ^ hameSS ^ PUt ° n and taken from the horse 
i the collar 

2 the names and back harness 

3 the bridle 

fK i, The b u St C ,° lla - S are made of leather - Tt sh ould be put upon 
the horse by slipping the bottom or large end over the horse" 
head and when on turn it so that the small end is up. Or un- 
buckle the clasp at the small end. Spread the end apart put 
around the horse's neck and buckle. The collar should fit 
snuggly to the shoulder but leave enough room at the wind pipe 

thelTJ G ^J °l! tH f hand - D0 , n0t P Ut a SWeat P ad 0" u^ 
the horse s neck shrinks in size and requires one 

°ver the collar throw one side of the names and upon the 
back the back harness. Put the hame strap through both ends 
of hames and pull as tightly as possible. Good collars are ruined 
by loose hames. Fasten the belly girt and hold back straps con- 
nected with the belly girt. One end of some martingales also 
run through the belly girt 

The bridle is adjusted by putting the bit into the horse's 
mouth with the left hand and at the same time holding the bridle 
as high as possible over the horse's head. Slip the crown piece 
over the ears and fasten the throat latch. If the horse refuses 
to take the bit shove the thumb into the corner of the horse's 
mouth. A horse has no teeth at this point and feeling the thumb 
on its gums opens its mouth 

Stand the off horse on the left side of the pole and the near 
horse on the right side of the pole. Horses become accustomed 
to working on the same side and are more contented if placed 
there. If a single neck yoke is to be used put it on the end 
of the pole and raise both pole and neck yoke. Fasten the 
pole strap by running it through the single ring directly in 
front of the horse and snap the end into the ring on the hame 
on the other side. Fasten the martingale to the neck yoke. Run 
the breeching strap through the ring in the tugs near the hames 
and back to the breeching ring and buckle tightly. In some 
harnesses the breeching straps are fastened to the belly girt 

Hook up the traces by means of the heel chains with the 
evener on the wagon. The pole straps and heel chains should 
be so adjusted that there will be but little play in the harness 
when the horse moves forward or backward 

A forked line runs to each horse. Run the outside line of 
each horse to the outside of the bit on that horse. Run the 
inside line on the near horse through the rein ring on the inside 
of its hames and then to the bit on the off horse. The inside 
rein of the off horse goes to the bit of the near horse 



18 



Fact A collar oiled twice a month and a harness oiled twice a year 
increase the usefulness of both harness and horse 

Words to be defined 

neck yoke bit bridle 

traces hold back strap 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types of sheep 

2 Aim To learn the history and types of sheep 

3 Home questions 

Ask the town clerk how much is paid by the town for sheep 
killed by dogs. What is the dog tax? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

Bring piece of wool cloth to school. Separate the threads. 
Light them. Cotton burps freely. Wool slowly. Wool dis- 
solved by sodium hydroxide. Cotton is dissolved by acids. 
Locate the great sheep raising districts from the geography 
lesson 

Have some one write or tell a story of sheep herding in the 
National Park in the west 

5 For reading and study 

"Types of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 



First December Lesson 

Types of Sheep 

After the dog sheep were probably the next animals to be 
domesticated by man principally for their wool to serve for 
clothing. It is not definitely known just where sheep originated 
but it is believed to be Central Asia. Wild species are still 
existant in different parts of the world chiefly in mountainous 
regions and in dry climates. The Big Horn Sheep of the Rocky 
Mountains are a wild variety of North America. Sheep origin- 
ally were extremely wild and timid. They fled at the slightest 
noise which they heard from great distances. Their strength 
and agility enabled them to spring among the most inaccessible 
rocks which they sought for safety. In the evolution from wild 
to domestic life many changes have taken place but none more 
striking than in personal safety. Sheep have become so entirely 
dependent upon man that they could not exist without his pro- 
tection and care 

Varieties of sheep have existed as distinct breeds since the 
written history of man. Abraham the founder of Israel measured 
his wealth in cattle and sheep. The fine robes of the Roman 
emperors were made from the wool of the Merino sheep, a 
variety brought by them to Spain from the Far East. Columbus 
on his second voyage in 1493 brought some of these Spanish 
Merinos to South America. Until quite recently most of the 
sheep raised in Mexico and in South Western United States were 
direct descendants of these sheep brought by Columbus. Eng- 
lish planters as early as 1609 brought to Virginia breeds of 
mutton sheep which had been developed in England from sheep 
imported from Spain 

19 



While there are many breeds of sheep there are but two 
main types the distinctly wool type and the mutton type. Farm- 
ers of eastern United States are raising a dual purpose sheep 
which will produce in the same animal both a fair quality and 
quantity of wool and also good mutton 

Types of Sheep 

To produce mutton most profitably sheep should have a low 
stocky form shortness of leg and a wide broad back. It is 
essential also that they mature early. When the animal is killed 
the carcass should be full and plump especially in the regions of 
the valuable meat cuts. The largest and heaviest sheep on record 
is a Lincoln ram weighing 456 pounds. Most sheep of the mut- 
ton type are polled that is hornless 

The wool type of sheep are covered with very fine thick 
wool which is a dirty black on the outside due to an exuding oil 
called the yolk. The rams of this type are horned. The heaviest 
fleece ever recorded as being sheared from sheep of this type 
weighed 52 pounds 

Fact For centuries sheep have provided man with both food and cloth 
ing 

Words to be denned 

existant timid agility carcass 

inaccessible 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Breeds of sheep 

2 Aim To learn the breeds of sheep 

3 Home questions 

a What breeds of sheep are kept in the neighborhood 
b Who will sell lambs for home projects in the spring? 
c Learn the current prices paid for wool mutton and 
lamb 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a What climatic reasons have made animal industry im- 
portant in England? Answer Warmth and moisture re- 
ceived from the Gulf Stream 

b Bring to school specimens of various kinds of wool from 
the fleece 

c Bulletin 593 U S Department of Agriculture gives score 
card for judging sheep. If possible score local specimen 
for school judging 

5 For reading and study 

"Breeds of sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Second December Lesson 

Breeds of Sheep 

The mutton type of sheep contains two classes called the 
medium wool and the long wool sheep. The medium wool sheep 
contain the breeds which were developed on the rolling rich 
grass lands of England called Downs and from which the breeds 

20 



took their names. These are Southdown Shropshire down Ox- 
ford down Hampshire down Suffolk down Horned-Dorset. 
The long wooled type contain the following breeds Leicester 
Lincoln Cotswold Cheviot. The wool breeds are the various 
Merinos the two most noted being the American and the Delaine 
Merino and the Rombouillet 

Of all the mutton breeds the Shrogshires are the most im- 
portant popular and extensively grown in the United States and 
Canada. Although they are not the largest of the mutton breeds 
the rams weigh around 225 pounds and shear at 12-16 pounds 
of wool. The breed is hornless has dark brown face and ears 
and legs. Wool covers the whole face scarcely leaving visible 
the eyes and the black tip of the nose. Its legs are also covered 
with wool while most of the other Down breeds have legs free 
from wool 

The Southdown is the accepted type of mutton and medium 
wooled sheep of England. It is the smallest of the mutton types 
but its flesh has for years been considered the finest in the 
market. Its face and legs are a lighter brown than the Shrop- 
shire and are free from wool 

The largest and heaviest of the Down breeds and the one 
which in that class gives the heaviest fleece is the Oxford 
down. They are best adapted to intensive farming and will 
thrive upon abundant pasturage which is inclined to be rather 
rank and coarse. The rams weigh 250 to 300 pounds and shear 
12 to 16 pounds of wool 

The Leicester Coltswold and Lincoln are English sheep of 
greasy size and are covered with long curling fleeces whose 
staple is sometimes 21 inches long. These great animals have 
coarse flesh weigh between 300-425 pounds and shear 15 to 30 
pounds of wool 

The fine wool sheep are included in a group called the 
Merinos. The characteristics of the breed other than those 
relating to the fleece are small compact bodies almost totally 
lacking in mutton qualities hardiness an active alert tempera- 
ment fine grazing qualities a remarkably strong flocking^ instinct 
a loose elastic skin which often rolls and folds materially in- 
creasing the wool producing surface and weight of fleece 

The Spanish or American Merino were developed in the 
mountains of Spain from sheep brought from the Far East by 
the Romans. From about the beginning of the Christian Era 
up to the 19th century Spain led the world in wool production. 
The practice of herding sheep in southern Spain and driving 
them north to pasture in summer served to fix in the breed the 
herding instinct that has since made it so valuable throughout 
the world 

There are three classes within this fine wool breed. Class 
A represents the extreme wool-producing type. The skin is 
wrinkled and folded over the entire body. The fleece is dense 

21 



and fine but only 2 to 2^4 inches long. Class B shows a medium 
amount of skin folded and shears 23 to 25 pounds of wool. Class 
C of the Delaine Merino carries a few skin folds. Its body 
exhibits more of the mutton type. Ram weighs 160 to 200 
pounds. The fleece weighs 18 to 25 pounds and its staple is 3-5 
inches long. The heaviest fleece recorded as sheared from any 
breed came from the American Merino and weighed 52 pounds 

The Rambouillet was developed in France from the Spanish 
stock. Compared with the original type the Rambouillet is larger 
more robust heavier in bone and frame, more "growthy" of 
earlier maturity with distinct mutton qualities and a very slightly 
wrinkled skin. The rams weigh 225 to 300 pounds and shear 18 
to 25 pounds of wool 

Fact New breeds indicate an improvement in type 
Words to be defined 

fleece temperament staple 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Feeding of sheep 

2 Aim To learn how to feed sheep 

3 Home questions 

a Ask someone who knows about sheep to explain how 
when and what they feed to lambs which have lost their 
mothers 

b What use may be made of hay which sheep will not eat?' 
Answer Fed to horses 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a iMake a list of foods which may be fed to older sheep 
b Find a meaning and how "hot house lambs" are fed 

Answer Lambs raised in winter 
c Have boys make a sheep creep hay rack and feed 

trough from pieces of box. Bring to school for exhibition 

5 For reading and study 

"Feeding of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Third December Lesson 
Feeding of Sheep 

In the more favored sections of New England where nat- 
ural grazing land is to be found little else than good pasturage 
is necessary for sheep in summer. It has been found imprac- 
tical to keep sheep in large numbers unless good pasturage can 
be depended upon during the entire pasturage season or at least 
until the regular field crops are harvested. Most of the flocks 
kept in New England are found running in good pasture land 
with cattle 

Sheep will eat a great variety of herbage and weeds which 
cows will not touch but they will not grow profitably unless 
good grass or a substitute is provided in the later summer when 
the lambs are fattening for market. This good feed is often 
provided by turning the sheep into the second growth clover 
crop or permitting them to run over the entire farm after the 
crops have been harvested 

22 



A safer practice is to grow a forage crop for late summer 
and fall feeding. Dwarf essex rape is an excellent crop for this 
purpose and is well adapted to New England conditions. Broad- 
cast on land free from weeds or sow in corn at the last cultiva- 
tion 2-3 pounds of rape seed. This will be ready for feeding in 
8-12 weeks. One acre sown alone or two acres after corn will 
fatten 30 to 40 lambs. Sheep are very dainty creatures and re- 
fuse to eat food which has been tramped over. A movable fence 
of some kind will make it possible to provide a new feeding area 
each day. Do not permit the lambs to eat greedily of this fresh 
green food the first few days. Bloats are likely to occur 

A good fattening ration which may be fed in late fall or 
winter three months before marketing is first month equal parts 
corn meal and oats Yi pound per day. Second month 2 parts 
corn meal 1 part oats 1/4 pound per day. Third month 3 parts 
corn meal 1 part oats 1 pound per day and as much more as 
they will eat up clean. Add to this feed 5 pounds of bran to 
every bushel of grain and once in a while a little linseed meal. 
In addition feed fine hay at night and give some succulent feed 
such as turnips beets or ensilage daily 

Sheep to be kept over the winter may be fed any of the 
finer hays preferably the clover if not too coarse. Alsike clover 
red top and rowen are considered the best. It should be fed 
in racks which prevent the sheep scattering and tramping their 
ration. Ensilage and roots are excellent to keep sheep in good 
condition. Sheep will clean up considerable corn fodder if it is 
stacked outside their winter quarters and it will at the same 
time provide necessary exercise in getting to it through the snow 

Just before lambing time in the spring most New England 
farmers begin to feed grain. Whole or ground oats and wheat 
bran sometimes with a little linseed oil meal is the mixture most 
commonly used. The amounts to be fed depends upon the 
quality and quantity of the roughage used 

More than most farm animals sheep are especially partic- 
ular about the condition of their drinking water. If it becomes 
stale or foul they refuse to drink it. A pasture with running 
water shade abundant grass and on high ground is ideal for 
sheep raising. Sheep should be given salt while at pasture at 
least twice a week and while in the barns in winter keep a box 
full at all times where it may be easily reached 

When it is desired to grow young mutton lambs quickly 
they must be taught to eat grain as early as possible. Some 
nibble at it when but 10 days old. Build a little yard called a 
"creep" into which the young sheep may pass to get gram in 
shallow boxes but into which the older sheep cannot enter The 
first feed may be bran to which has been added a little brown 

23 



sugar. It may be necessary to place some of this on the lambs 
mouth at first. After they have learned to eat grain the follow- 
ing mixture should be fed 

Five parts wheat bran 4 parts cracked corn 1 part linseed 
meal. By the time lambs are 10 to 12 weeks old they should 
weigh from 50 to 60 pounds 

Lambs should be weened when four to five months old 
somewhere about August 1st. At this time put the lambs on a 
newly mowed clover meadow 

Fact Cleanliness is the first essential to good feeding. Feeding is 

the first essential to good stock 
Words to be defined 

dwarf ensilage fodder stale ween 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Care of sheep 

2 Aim To learn how to care for sheep 

3 Home questions 

a Ask some farmer in the locality why more sheep are not 

kept on the farms 
b Why is it that if one sheep goes through a hole in the 

fence the whole flock will? 
c Why are goats cattle or horses sometimes pastured 

with sheep? Answer As a partial protection against 

dogs 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Secure a picture illustrating the cuts of mutton. Have 

it copied on the board 
b Propose the raising of a lamb as an animal project. 

Appoint someone to be responsible for learning prices 

and when lambs may be purchased 

5 For reading and study 

"Care of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Fourth December Lesson 
Care of Sheep 

In New England the large and numerous flocks of earlier 
years were kept almost entirely for wool production. At present 
there is a great demand for lambs marketed when four to five 
months old making wool a secondary consideration. Today 
shipments of mutton from the west have not only ceased to in- 
crease but have actually grown less as a result of the breaking 
up of the great sheep ranches. The present production of mut- 
ton sheep might be increased in New England three-fold with- 
out materially lessening the number of other live stock which is 
kept 

The decline of the sheep industry in the East cannot be 
attributed entirely to the ravages of dogs alone. They are still a 
serious menace and call for further remedial legislation by the 
States but it is quite likely that disease low prices cheaper 

24 



grazing land of the West and the lack of proper care were 
greatly to blame for the falling off in the industry. With the 
increasing prices paid for mutton and lamb the keeping of 
sheep is once more a paying industry 

A sheep project is interesting and profitable. Boys and 
girls might well undertake the entire responsibility for caring 
for a single animal or a small flock. Of all the farm animals 
sheep are the least understood by the general farmer. The baby 
lamb is a delicate leggy wabbly creature that is often so help- 
less the first day or two that they must be helped to their meals. 
If the mother refuses to recognize her bleating child put them 
both into a corner where the mother cannot turn about. It 
sometimes happens that a young lamb becomes dangerously 
chilled. If this occurs immerse it in warm water when it is 
thoroughly warmed rub it dry and put it in a warm place for a 
short time. In a few days it becomes decidedly stronger and is 
able to keep up with its mother as she grazes about the pasture. 
After a week or two it begins to nibble at solid food such as 
grain and hay. Encourage it to do this for more rapid gains 
will be made with the additional food. Do not fail to cut off the 
tails of those sheep intended to be mature. When ten to four- 
teen days old docking as it is called is a simple process. Take 
a mallet and a chisel lay the tail upon a block and with one 
sharp blow between the two joints the operation is done. The 
boy or girl who raises sheep should be something of a nurse. 
The little lamb is likely to be taken by many ills such as sore 
eyes sore mouth constipation stomach worms and the like. 
Each trouble requires special treatment and the advice of an ex- 
perienced shepherd should be sought. Better still the help given 
in the Government bulletins published by the Department of 
Agriculture Washington D C will be of great assistance 

Sheep do not require elaborate quarters but they must be 
made in such a manner that they will be thoroughly dry and 
draft proof. Have plenty of windows and doors on the south 
side which should be open most of the time during the winter 
Close them only in severe and stormy weather. Pure air and 
sunlight are nature's disinfectants and help to ward off cold and 
snuffles from which sheen suffer and thereby possibly contract 
worse diseases. There should be plenty of bedding used on the 
dirt barn floor. Change the bedding every six to eight weeks or 
oftener A yard should also be connected with the barn where 
a part of the hay or cornstalk are fed in the snow in order to 
induce sheep to exercise. At no time however should sheep be 
exposed to driving wet snows and drenching rains, lnis yard 
as well as the stable should be kept clean since from an accumu- 
lation of filth in the hoofs sheep are likely to contract foot rot 
a disease very difficult to cure . 

Better results in raising sheep seem to be secured in Wew 
England by changing sheep often from pasture to pasture put- 
ting them on new seeded second growth clover or feeding them 

25 



upon forage crops of rape and the like. This may be due to the 
fact that on wet pastures where old sheep have run before 
stomach worms grow upon the stems of pasture grass and get 
into the digestive tracts of the young lambs. A lamb which has 
worms becomes pale thin and weak. Its skin has a white 
paper like appearance due to the parasites sucking its blood. 
If the sheep contract the trouble, the following remedy will help 
to remove the worms from the sheeps' stomach. Make a drench 
by putting a small rubber hose over the neck of a bottle let the 
following mixture run into the sheep's stomach 4 tablespoons 
full of gasoline shaken up in 2 tablespoons full of raw linseed 
oil and 8 to 10 tablespoons full of fresh milk 

Ticks on sheep correspond in discomfort to lice on fowl. 
Do not allow sheep to go into winter quarters with ticks on 
them. They may be removed by using a sheep dip such as may 
be purchased at stores handling animal supplies 

The cost of fencing has seemed prohibitive to many farm- 
ers. Stonewalls may be made sheep proof by removing a few 
stones from the top and inclining posts over the wall into the 
pasture. Replace the stones on the posts and nail boards or 
chicken wire between the ends of the posts which project into 
the pasture. Sheep have no footing to climb upon being kept 
down by the overhang. Woven wire fence is without doubt 
better than barbed or smooth wire where a new fence must be 
erected 

The wool sheared from the sheep in the spring will pay for 
their care and feed. The price received for the fleece will be 
the profit made upon the venture. Sheep were formerly sheared 
by hand and are so still where the flocks are small. Modern clip- 
ping machines shear sheep more quickly and without the danger 
of cutting the sheep as so often happens when sheep are inex- 
pertly hand-sheared 

Fact New England farms are well equipped to profitably raise more 
mutton sheep 

Words to be defined 

menace drench parasite sheep tick 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types and breeds of dairy cattle 

2 Aim To learn the types and breeds of dairy cattle 

3 'Home questions 

a Do any farmers in your locality own pure bred stock > 
Have some pupil interview the owner and read a paper 
telling about what was learned at the visit 

b Bring to school a description of the best cow in the 
home herd. Tell of her performance that is what 
amounts of milk she has made 

c How are the legs of a cow placed when it lies down — 
gets up? 

d How may the age of a cow be told? 
26 



4 Work for home or school activity 

a Bring to school mounted on cardboard pictures of the 
various dairy breeds 

b Secure from Government Farmers bulletin #893 Conn 
State Agricultural College Storrs Conn or farm papers 
a score card for dairy cattle. Have your parents help 
score the best cows in the herd. If herds are visited 
from the school invite a good herdsman to help score 
the cattle visited 

c Draw upon the board a picture of a dairy cow showing 
the various parts of the animal 

5 For reading and study 

"Types and breeds of dairy cattle" Readings in Agriculture 
Farm Stock 

First January Lesson 

Type and Breeds of Dairy Cattle 

Cattle are raised to supply meat hides milk and many use- . 
ful products of milk such as cream butter cheese and at the 
same time supply a large quantity of manure which serves to 
maintain the fertility of the soil 

In outline the dairy cow shows more or less clearly three 
distinct wedges. If she is looked at from one side her upper 
and lower body lines should come together if these lines were 
extended out beyond her head. The second wedge appears when 
the animal is looked at from the top and rear. Her body be- 
comes wider from the chest to the hips. Looked at from the 
top and front her body gradually widens from the withers (the 
place where the neck and back join) backward over the ab- 
domen. This is the third wedge. In general the members of 
the dairy type are angular and show broken sharp body line 
while beef cattle have rounded lines and smooth surface. In 
dairy cattle the organs of the body seem to exist for and to 
radiate from the udders or milk bag of the cow 

The head of the dairy cow should be lean with large nostrils 
and with a little hollow called the dish in a broad intelligent 
face. Her eyes should be calm and bright. The neck should be 
long and thin. The front legs straight the ribs well arched 
showing large capacity for taking care of her food. The hips 
should be prominent and sharp the thighs muscular but not 
fatty. Fine hair covering a soft skin indicates high quality. 
When purchasing a cow the most important part of the body to 
consider is the udder. When milked dry this should hang limp 
and be soft and pliable to the touch showing good tissues for 
making milk rather than meaty flesh. When full the bag should 
form a graceful curve from a point high up in the rear to an- 
other well advanced in front. Prominent and winding milk 
reins along the under side of the body carrying the blood from 
the udder into the large holes in the body called milk wells in- 
dicate an ample supply of blood. The quarters of the udder 
should be even teats medium sized and squarely placed seem- 
ingly on each corner of the bag 

27 



Dairy cattle fall within two special classes one where the 
milk yield is of moderate quantity but the fat proportionally 
high the second where the quantity of milk is larger but the 
fat much lower. To the first class belongs the Jerseys and the 
Guernseys known as the butter breeds. To the second belong 
the Holsteins and Ayrshire known as the milk and cheese breeds 

The Jersey cow was developed on the island of Jersey in 
the English Channel. The color ranges from almost a black 
through a dark brown to a very light fawn. The hair about the 
nostrils is grayish or cream colored. A black tongue and nose 
and black tips to amber colored horns are partial marks of 
identification. The breed is rather small weighing but 800 to 
1200 pounds and needs good pasturage and ample food. Jersey 
cows in the Register of Merit average 7,808 pounds of milk 
making 419 pounds of fat. Sophie 19 of Hood Farm is a cham- 
pion cow of this breed. $50,000 has been refused for the sale 
of this cow. She made 999.1 pounds of butter fat from 17,557.8 
pounds of milk. The breed will test from 4% to 8% butter fat 
in the milk 

The Guernsey is another breed developed in the Channel 
Islands. It is reddish fawn or tan and white rarely with solid 
coloring) with rings of light colored hair around the eyes and 
muzzel. It is a little heavier larger and coarser than the Jersey 
and gives on the average slightly more milk. The milk of the 
breed is more yellow than that of any other breed. The milk of 
this breed averages about 5.3% butter fat. A cow called Murne 
Cowan holds a record of 24.008 pounds of milk containing 
1,098.8 pounds of fat 

The Holsteins are now a very popular breed particularly 
where milk is sold by the quart rather than on the fat contained 
in the milk. Cows of this breed in order to be reigstered as 
pure bred cattle must be both black and white in patches. They 
are the heaviest of the purely dairy type weighing from 1200 to 
1800 pounds. The breed was developed in the Netherlands to 
produce milk for making cheese and large enough to provide 
meat when killed. The quantity of milk produced by the breed 
is astonishing. Tilly Alcartra gave 33,424.8 pounds of milk in 
one year. Considerable over 16 tons of milk. The world's 
record for butter fat production is also held by this breed not 
because their milk is so rich but because there is such a quantity 
of it. Duchess Skylark Ormsby holds world's record for milk 
production with 1,506.36 pounds of butter fat from 27,761.7 
pounds of milk in one year Average butter fat content for this 
breed is 3.36% 

The Ayrshire takes its name from the county of Ayr in 
southwestern Scotland. These cows are noted for their hardi- 
ness foraging ability and economical keep qualities. In color 
they are red and white. The striking Ayrshire characteristics 
are the graceful upcurving horns and an almost perfect udder 

28 



carried far out in front and attached high behind. Ayrshire 
milk ranges in richness between the average Holstein and the 
average Jersey or Guernsey 

There are several other minor breeds of dairy cattle whose 
performance does not equal those mentioned. There are the 
Brown Swiss the Dutch Belted Kerry the Dexter and the 
French Canadian 

Fact Pure bred dairy cows produce the largest financial returns 

Words to be defined 

beef identification milk fat 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types and breeds of beef cattle 

2 Aim To learn the types and breeds of beef cattle 

3 Home questions 

a What are the areas of the great beef production in the 
United States?' In the world? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Locate a pair of steers in the neighborhood. Report on 
the description breed care feeding and work of these 
animals 
b Secure a picture giving the cuts of beef 
c Assign some pupil the task of telling the story of a 
Western Round-up 

5 For reading and study 

"Types and Breeds of Beef Cattle" Readings in Agricul- 
ture Farm Stock 

Second January Lesson 
Type and Breeds of Beef Cattle 

The value of beef cattle in the United States exceed the 
value of all other farm stock combined. More than two thirds 
of the beef cattle are raised west of the Mississippi River. The 
western pastures are rapidly being converted into farms and not 
since the country was first settled has it contained so few beef 
cattle in proportion to the population as at present. If sufficient 
beef is to be raised in this country to supply the need for the 
amount eaten here the beef industry will have to be extended 
to the general farms of the eastern half of the United States. 
There is no other animal which can use so large an amount of 
coarse food which can thrive in so wide a range of conditions 
and attention or which is so nearly free from disease and mis- 
fortune as the beef animal. There is a surplus of milk in New 
England and it will likely continue for a time. Beef is always 
in demand. Many of our New England farms can raise and 
winter a herd of beef animals 

The beef breeds are built on rather heavy square stocky 
lines. The outline of the body is rectangular like a brick stand- 
ing on the long edge. The body is well rounded compact broad 
on the back the bones not protruding and the flesh tender 

29 



The shorthorn or Durham grows to be the largest of the 
beef breeds weighing 1900 to 2300 pounds. Fortunately the 
strains of this breed has for years been developed for milk pro- 
duction. The shorthorns are well recognized as the source of 
much of the milk from which the great quantities of butter are 
made in the middle west. Six thousand pounds of milk per year 
is the minimum requirement for registry. A record for this 
breed is 17,241.5 pounds of milk and 653.35 pounds of butter 
fat in one year. No other breed of beef animals can approach 
this amount of milk and beef produced. The color ranges from 
pure white red and white pure red and roan. Roan is a grow- 
ing together of red and white hair without forming solid patches 
of either color 

The Hereford ranks, second to the Shorthorn in beef pro- 
duction. Its milking qualities are very poor. It is easily recog- 
nized by its red body white face white brush and often white 
top lines and under lines. It is hardy makes good use of rough 
forage and matures early which especially fits it for the produc- 
tion of "Baby beef." These animals weigh 1700 to 2200 pounds 

Aberdeen Angus cattle are black in color with short smooth 
coats and are hornless. In conformation they are more cylin- 
drical than other beef breeds. They are not as heavy as either 
the Shorthorn or Hereford but prime steers of this breed meet 
the butchers' ideal because they are more evenly fleshed 

Other breeds of beef cattle are the Galloways Devon Sussex 
and West Highland 

Fact Carloads of beef cattle are being shipped from the New England 
hills' 

Words to be defined 

surplus registry cylindrical 

butcher 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types and kinds of feeds 

2 Aim To learn the types and kinds of feeds 

3 Home questions 

a Secure samples of corn oats barley and other grains 
b Make a canvas of all the commercial stock feeds found 
in the locality. Tabulate the names ingredients prices 
the percentages of Protein carbonhydrate fat and 
crude fibre 
c Compare cost and quality of each 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Bring to school samples of mill feeds such as bran 
middlings cottonseed meal linseed meal gluten. Label 
and have pupils learn to identify 

b bring samples of timothy hay clover hay alfalfa en- 
silage and other roughage such as roots beet pulp 

5 For reading and study 

"Types and kinds of feeds" Readings in Agriculture Farm 
Stock 

30 



Third and Fourth January Lessons 
Types and Kinds of Feeds 

Just as the soil must contain the food elements needed for 
the growth of plants so the cow's ration must contain the ele- 
ments required to build up the body and produce milk 

Only three different food elements are necessary to be 
taken into account when considering what and how much the 
cow shall be fed. These are protein carbohydrate and fat and 
are found in varying proportions in nearly all vegetables and 
grains. Much protein is found in clover hay alfalfa linseed 
meal cottonseed meal wheat middlings and gluten meal. Pro- 
tein occurs nearly pure in the white of egg. This food com- 
pound builds up the fleshy structure of the body called the 
tissue. It enters largely into the make up of muscles blood milk 
tendons nerves skin hair and wool 

Carbohydrate is found in high proportions in corn gluten 
meal wheat bran. The roughages such as timothy hay ensilage 
and roots are also very useful in providing carbohydrate and the 
necessary bulk to the food demanded by most farm animals. 
This food compound contains the starch sugar and fat which 
produces energy yields heat and makes motion possible. In 
contrasting the two types of food the protein may be likened to 
the boiler of an engine and the carbohydrate to the fuel 

The following table shows the varying proportions of protein 
carbohydrate and fat in common farm feeds. The nutritive 
ratio column expresses the number of pounds of carboydrate to 
one pound of protein found in the feeds 

Table 1 



Carbo 
100 pounds of Dry matter Protein hydrates Nutritive 

& fat ratio 

Alfalfa 91.6 luf" 42.3 1:3.8 

Clover hay 84.7 6.8 34.7 1:5.8 

Corn silage 20.9 9 12.9 1:14* 

Corn grain 89.1 7.9 76.4 :9.7 

Gluten meal 91.8 25.8 68.1 J 3.6 

Linseed meal 90.8 29.3 48.5 1:1.7 

Oats grain 89.0 9.2 56.8 1:6 2 

Timothy hay 86.8 2.8 46.6 1:16.6 

Wheat bran 88.1 12.2 45.3 1:3.7 

Wheat middlings 87.9 2.8 60.7 1:4.7 

Cottonseed meal 92.0 40.0 40.0 1:1 

Scientists have determined quite accurately just the amount 
of food required to keep an animal in normal condition without 
increasing or decreasing in weight and without giving any pro- 
duct or labor. When work milk wool eggs are demanded the 
amount of food fed must be increased to produce these addi- 
tional substances 

31 



A balanced ration is one which has the proper proportions 
of protein carbohydrate and fat to keep the animal and to sup- 
ply the product desired 

The following table shows the amounts of protein carbohy- 
drate and fat required by various animals when doing certain 
kinds of work 

Table 2 



For 1000 pounds 
weight 



Dry matter Protein 



Carbo 

hydrates 

&fat 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Horses moderately worked 24 

Cows giving 11 lbs milk daily... 25 

Cows giving 22 lbs milk daily... 29 

Cows giving 27£ lbs milk daily. 32 

Fattening cattle 30 

Fattening swine 32 

Poultry for eggs 55 

Table 3 
The following table gives ration for d 



2.0 


12.4 


1:6.2 


1.6 


10.7 


1:6.7 


2.5 


14.1 


1:5.6 


3.3 


14.8 


1:4.6 


3.0 


16.1 


1:5.4 


4.0 


25.1 


1:6.3 


8.2 


39.4 


1:4.8 



airy cows 



Dry matter Protein Carbohydrates 



.36 


5.16 




.68 


3.47 




.37 


1.35 




1.29 


3.40 


Nutritive ratio 


2.69 


13.38 


1:4.9 



Corn silage 40 lbs 8.36 

Clover hay 10 lbs 8.47 

Wheat bran 3 lbs 2.64 

Gluten 5 lbs 4.59 



24.06 
Solution 

From table I it will be seen that ioo pounds of silage con- 
tains 20.9 pounds of dry matter. In table 3 40 pounds of silage 
in the ration contains .40 or 20.9 pounds or 8.36 pounds 

Continue the operations for all the ingredients of the ration 
as .40 of .9 equals .36 pounds of protein in 40 pounds of silage 

Divide the total carbohydrate by the total protein to find 
the nutritive ratio 

Below are other dairy rations. Work out these and from 
those products which are fed on the home farm devise a bal- 
anced ration for the live stock. Using table 1 as a standard 

Sample dairy rations 



corn silage 
clover hay 
cottonseed meal 
ground corn 



40 lbs 
15 

1 

3 



corn stover 
wheat bran 
gluten meal 
corn meal 
linseed meal 



15 lbs 
4 
4 
1 
2 



corn silage 
wheat bran 
gluten meal 
corn meal 
linseed meal 



45 lbs 
4 
3 
2 
1 



mixed hay 
wheat bran 
cottonseed meal 
hominy meal 



20 lbs 
2 
2 
2 



32 



Fact A balanced ratio produces the most milk at the least cost 

Words to be defined 

element protein ratio 

gluten meal 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Feeding of dairy cattle 

2 Aim To learn how to feed dairy cattle 

3 Home questions 

a How many pastures in the locality are plowed and re- 
seeded every few years ? 

b Name the farmers of the locality who have silos. De- 
scribe the kinds of construction 

c Ask a farmer how he knows the proper amount of grain 
to be given each cow 

d How does a cow move its head when biting off grass? 

e Note whether the cow eats facing or with the wind 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Describe the various methods used for watering stocks 

5 For reading and study 

"Feeding of Dairy 'Cattle" Readings in Agriculture Farm 
Stock 

First and Second February Lessons 
To Teach the Feeding of Dairy Cattle 

To obtain the greatest returns from the dairy herd the 
animals must be fed properly. The cow is a machine for con- 
verting feed into milk butter and meat. Nature teaches us how 
the cow should be fed. The cow does her best work in May and 
June when she is receiving nature's ration-fresh grass. There- 
fore when pastures begin to dry and the grass turns yellow their 
lean pastures should be supplemented with some growing crop 
cut while green and succulent. Such crops are corn oats and 
peas green alfalfa millet. It is difficult and often requires 
much labor to sow care for cut haul and feed these additional 
crops during the summer. To do away with these extra labors 
the farmers store sufficient silage in the fall to last through the 
following winter and summer. To feed a cow during this length 
of time requires four to five tons of silage per cow. It is im- 
portant that the flow of milk be kept up for it is difficult to bring 
a cow back to her milk when once she has dropped 

The amount of grain fed should be regulated somewhat by 
the amount of milk produced. The rule of feeding i pound of 
grain for each three or four pounds of milk received is con- 
sidered safe. Better rule is i pound of grain fed each day for 
every pound of butter fat produced during the week. Each cow 
however must be studied and given individual attention in order 
to have her produce the largest quantity of milk 

Every farmer should grow as many leguminous feeds as 
possible. Legumes are those which produce the proteins. Some 
of these crops are clover alfalfa cow peas Canada field peas 
and soja beans. They will take the place of the high priced 

33 



protein containing concentrates which are purchased at the feed 
store. Alfalfa and silage are almost a balanced ration in them- 
selves. Corn and cow peas or soja beans grown separately and 
cut together into the silo is another well balanced combination 
which can be grown at home. Cows should have plenty of salt 
at all times 

The lump form made up in cakes to hang beside the 
stanchion affords the cow an opportunity to have it every day 

Eighty-seven pounds in every one hundred pounds of milk 
is made up of water. The cow must have in summer and win- 
ter a bountiful supply of cool clean fresh water 

Fact New England farmers save money by growing legumes and en- 
silage for their cattle 

Words to be defined 

convert succulent silage 

leguminous balanced ration 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic The care and management of the herd 

2 Aim To learn how to care for the cow 

3 Home questions 

a How many barns in the community have concrete manure 
pits ?' 

b Look up in farm papers the barn equipment which help 
get the chores more easily done 

c 'Bring in the names of various milking machines adver- 
tised. How is each operated? 

d Name farmers within two miles of the school who have 
any of the following silos hay forks manure spreaders 
concrete floors in the cow barns litter carriers 

e What farmer has had his herds tested for tuberculosis? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Drawing lesson 

1 Draw a barn to scale showing ground plan out- 
side dimensions including silo 

2 Showing arrangement of stalls feed room car- 
riage room hay bays and the like 

5 For reading and study 

"The care and management of the herd" Readings in Agrir 
culture Farm Stock 

Third and Fourth February Lessons 

Care and Management of the Herd 

The dairy cow is one of the most peculiar animals with 
which man has ever dealt. Nature intended that she should give 
milk only to supply her young with food. Man however con- 
ceived the idea of using this product as a food for himself. He 
has studied breeds feeding the best methods for care and hous- 
ing until as a result a Holstein cow has made the astonishing 
record of producing over 16 tons of milk in one year. Such a per- 
formance taxes a cow's strength and weakens her resistance to 
disease unless she receives the best of care and management 

34 



In winter the barn must be warm but not close and humid. 
The cow must have ventilation but there must be no drafts. 
Her yield of milk will surely decrease if she shivers for any 
length of time because a cold wind is blowing around her. Foul 
air from the animals and manure lies near the floor and should 
be removed. A shaft or flue two feet square open at one end 
12 to 15 inches from the floor and the other end projecting 
through the roof will provide ventilation for 20 cows. Fresh* 
air is admitted by covering some of the window spaces with 
muslin or a fresh air inlet is built in the walls beginning near 
the ground on the outside and carried up to the ceiling on the 
inside where the air drops to the floor. This system of ventila- 
tion is called the King system. Some farms have only muslin 
tacked over the window spaces. This is preferable to having no 
fresh air 

Cows must be kept clean. Use plenty of straw if obtain- 
able otherwise spread at night swale or coarse hay sawdust or 
shavings. Bedding adds greatly to the comfort of the cow when 
she lies down and prevents lumps on her knees. Bedding also 
absorbs the liquid which is the most valuable part of the manure. 
If possible clip the hair from the thighs and flanks of the cows. 
They may more easily be washed and dirt removed when the 
hair is short. The cow's udder must be cleaned before milking 
Simple brushing with the hand is useless. Wipe it clean with a 
damp cloth. As for the rest of her body she enjoys and profits 
by a good daily currying and brushing. While milking in fly 
time throw an opened fertilizer bag over her withers. Much of 
the dirt and filth found in milk causing tuberculosis comes from 
the filth dropped into the milk from the dirty sides and body of 
the cow 

All animals should have regular exercise. This means that 
during the winter months dairy cattle must be let out into a 
clean yard each day excepting when it is raw and blustering 

Regularity is one of the most important things leading to 
successful dairying. Work by the clock. Milk feed water and 
clean the barn just as promptly as the hours arrive. The sense 
of regularity of action is felt by the cow and she gives more 
milk because she is contented. The following order of work is 
followed in many dairy barns. Milk first then grain feeding 
the ensilage or roots followed by stable cleaning while watering 
following this comes hay feeding and grooming 

In winter the water given a cow should have the chill re- 
moved warmed is better. It is wasteful of costly grain to per- 
mit her to heat it in her body 

The stable and gutters should be cleaned at least twice daily. 
The manure should be hauled and spread directly on the fields 
both summer and winter as soon as it is made or when there is 
a load 

35 



A cow that does not produce 6500 pounds of milk if grain 
fed is not making a respectable profit for the owner. Weigh 
the milk each day. Test its butter fat content by means of the- 
Babcock test and if the animal is not making a profit over her 
board sell her. Buy or raise calves from high producing an- 
cestors. Buy a little pure bred stock and watch the herd im- 
prove 

No cattle disease has been more discussed than tuberculosis. 
It is spread by germs from the mouth and from the manure. 
The United States Government is assisting to stamp it out in 
this country. From July 1 1918 to May 1 1919 252,114 cattle 
were tested by veternarians and those found not having the dis- 
ease were placed upon the "accredited" list. These cattle sell 
for a higher price than those not tested 

Now that lumber has become so expensive more economical 
methods for building barns are being sought. Instead of the 
square frame timber such as were formerly used modern barns 
are erected with plank to support the roof and hay loft. Not 
only is there less timber used but there is more available space 
in the hay mow when this plan is adopted 

Fact Loud talking swearing and rough handling are not permitted in 
well managed dairies 

Words to be defined 

management humid drafts absorb 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Types of hogs 

2 Aim To learn the history and types of hogs 

3 Home questions 

a Learn how hams and bacon are smoked in the neighbor- 
hood 
b Report on the size and construction of local barns 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Secure pictures and descriptions of the many different 
kinds of knots in use about the farm. Let pupils demon- 
strate tying them before the class 

b Secure a picture of the cuts of pork. Have it copied on 
the blackboard 

c Have a collection of types and breeds of hogs pasted 
onto cardboard thus making a picture chart 

5 For reading and study 

"Types of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

First March Lesson 

Types of Hogs 

All of our important breeds of hogs have come from the 
wild hog that still roam over Europe Asia and Africa. In the 
wild state this animal is active and powerful. It is as speedy 
as a deer coarse and rough in flesh and a vicious fighter. His 
head is large and bony strong and provided with two tusks 
that inflict severe wounds and make a no mean foe for lion 

36 



or tiger. This animal in his wild home selects places that are 
moist and rather well concealed by the forest growth where he 
may feed upon plants roots and fruits. When hungry however 
it is not adverse to eating worms snakes and flesh of any kind. 
Today the wild hog is a favorite animal hunted by the sportsmen 
of Europe. The sense of smell is well developed in a hog and 
it is able to detect the presence of food even under the ground. 
In France this faculty is made of commercial use by using them 
to search the forests for truffles a kind of an edible fungus. 
For meat hog flesh has long been considered a delicacy. The 
Romans served little pigs whole stuffed with dates as well as 
nightingales and larks covered with rich gravies 

In previous lessons it has been pointed out that special types 
of horses cows and sheep are raised for particular purposes. 
The pig is no exception. The best bacon requires one type of 
hog and a good growth of lard and fat tissues requires another 
type 

The bacon swine are long and narrow. They have light 
loins and shoulders and produce a high proportion of lean meat. 
Comparatively few bacon hogs are raised in the United States 
for the reason that corn is not a profitable feed for them also 
the foreign trade in them has never been developed to the extent 
as has been the exportation of the lard type. The United States 
exports more hog products than the value of all exported cattle 
hogs and sheep combined. In the northern parts of the country 
where corn is still a doubtful crop to raise it is becoming more 
and more common to raise the bacon type of hog 

Canada is noted for its excellent bacon. The bacon hog 
should weigh around 200 pounds. The body is long smooth and 
flat sided. The hams are long and tapering the legs fairly long 
and strong. The shoulders neck and jowls are rather light. 
The back not too broad and slightly arched and the flesh smooth 
firm and without wrinkles in the skin. The whole effect should 
be a firm meaty carcass with the side as the most important and 
most developed part 

As most farmers know the ideal lard hog is practically a 
healthy evenly developed, "mountain of meat and fat." Round- 
ness compactness breadth depth fullness of form fineness 
but cleanness of bone even distribution of tender flesh mellow 
smoothness of skin and soft hair are its distinguishing char- 
acteristics. The hams back and shoulders are the parts in which 
greatest development is desired but the jowl neck loin rump and 
all other regions should show thorough development smooth- 
ness and a high degree of fatness 

Chester white hogs of this type have weighed over 1000 
pounds 
Fact The market is demanding pigs raised to 200 pounds in six months 

Words to be defined 

vicious tusks inflict 

fungus edible bacon 

37 



Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Breeds of hogs 

2 Aim To learn the breeds of hogs 

3 Home questions 

a Name the farmers of the community who own registered 

hogs and what are the breeds?' 
b What prices were paid for pigs last spring?' 
c Assign some pupils to take charge of pig project looking 

up where pigs may be purchased prices time for delivery 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Have pupils look for stories about wild hogs of the Old 
World and Razorback hogs of our South 

5 IFor reading and study 

"Breeds of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Second and Third March Lessons 

Breeds of Hogs 

The Berkshire is of English origin and is a lard hog of 
great popularity in the south. It is at once recognized by its 
"six white points" one on the face another on the tail and one 
on each foot. The rest of the body is black. The face is short 
and dished with small erect ears slightly inclined forward the 
neck is short and back arched and broad. In England this is 
a bacon hog. In the south a feed high in protein with little oil 
tends to give this animal the bacon form. But in the middle 
west in the land of corn clover and alfalfa the lard and pork 
characteristics have been intensified and developed. Hogs of 
this breed readily attain the weight of 500 to 600 pounds at 
maturity and if fattened at 8 or 9 months will reach 225 pounds 
and up. They are excellent grazers reach maturity at an early 
age and fit a great many varying farm conditions 

The Poland-China originated in the Miami valley of the 
Ohio and is considered the most popular American lard hog. 
Its fame and prestige are due to its great lard and pork pro- 
duction. It thrives best in the corn belt where clover alfalfa 
and corn are abundant. In color the Poland-China is spotted 
black and white in size and form it is similar to the Berkshire 
except that the frame averages a little larger and stronger the 
ears lop over the eyes while on the Berkshire they are short 
pointed and straight. These hogs are early maturing compact 
blocky and noted for easily making meat and lard. They are 
ready for the market under usual farm conditions in 8 or 9 
months and at maturity weigh 500 to 600 pounds and over 

The Duroc-Jersey hog resembles the Poland^China but is 
red in color. The standard is cherry red without spots. Their 
origin is not well known but it has been developed solely in 
America. They are very prolific grow rapidly and make pork 
and lard cheaply. The breed is becoming exceedingly popular 
in the corn belt due to its good grazing qualities and because it 

38 



produces a large rich flavored carcass with a fair proportion of 
lean meat. They also will reach 250 to 275 pounds in weight at 
8 or 9 months and 500 to 700 pounds at maturity 

Chester county Pennsylvania produced the breed of Ches- 
ter whites. They grow to be the largest of all breeds but since 
the public have been demanding smaller and sweeter meat large 
sized hogs are not the fashion. At maturity they average 600 to 
700 pounds. This breed possesses great grazing qualities the 
hogs are quiet and fatten rapidly. They have not been popular 
in the south because the sun scalds their pure white thin skin 

Farm papers often carry advertisement of O I C hogs. 
This stands for Ohio Improved Chester White. Chester White 
breeders believed they could improve some of the points of the 
older hog and still keep its large size solid frame and fine 
length. The Improved Chester White is the result. These hogs 
are a little smaller in bone the face is more dished and the 
snout shorter 

The large Yorkshire is a typical breed of the bacon class. 
It is noted for great length being longer than any other breed. 
They weigh about the same as the Chester White but their backs 
are not as broad. Their sides are deep and smooth ideal for 
bacon. They have strong legs can forage far and are hardy. 
They graze well and their carcass cuts bacon of the richest and 
best quality. The Smaller Yorkshire as the name indicates be- 
longs to the same breed but it is smaller in size. These hogs are 
finer in quality and present greater symmetry and compactness 
than the larger 

The mulefoot hog is a very old breed 'developed from the 
Berkshire and Razorback wild hog. Unlike other hogs which 
have a cloven hoof this has a solid foot like the mule. The 
hogs are black in color of very large size and have large litters. 
The meat is considered very good because of its excellent qual- 
ity. The hogs are said to be immune from hog cholera but 
convincing proof is still lacking on this point 

The Hampshire breed is characterized by a white band of 
hair 4 to 12 inches in width encircling the body and including 
the front legs. The breed is still in process of development and 
the tendency seems to be towards the lard hog rather than the 
bacon type in which class it is now included 

The Tarn worth is of extreme bacon type and of English 
origin. In color the hogs are red in light and dark shades. They 
are easily raised for bacon and do not fatten rapidly. They 
however grow quite large weighing up to 600 pounds. The 
head is very long and straight. The ears are large and coarse 
the body narrow and the legs long. The carcass shows a large 
proportion of lean meat 

Some of the less important breeds of hogs are the Cheshire 
a white pig developed in New York State the Essex a small 
English breed the American Suffolk a little known breed which 
stands confinement well and the Victoria 

39 



Fact Hogs are among the most important animals raised on the farm 
for meat or profit and no farm is complete unless some are kept 
Words to be defined 

grazer prestige thrive average 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Housing of hogs 

2 Aim To learn how to house hogs 

3 Home questions 

a Learn which farmers of the community best care for 

their hog houses and pens 
b Ask children to find out why farmers keep pigs in dirty 
pens rather than allowing them to run on pasture 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Have pupils bring to school a small movable hog house 
which has been made from pieces of a wooden box. Use 
leather for hinges 

b What farmers of the community have permanent winter 
hog houses and movable hog cots? 

5 For reading and study 

"Housing of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Fourth March Lesson 

Housing of Hogs 

"The hog does not need a palace or an upholstered cage 
nor does it prosper in a dungeon." Some farmers go to the 
extreme of erecting expensive hog houses with conveniences 
that add little to the comfort of the animals. But on the other 
hand many seem to think that any filthy hole under a pile of 
boards will suffice for the hog 

Hogs are more sensitive to cold than horses or cattle which 
have thick coats to protect them. Hogs lie down more than 
other animals and need a better bed. They live close to the 
ground and easily breath in dust and impurities. They need 
sunshine and pure air more than most farm animals yet they 
are often provided with the dirtiest of places for a shelter. 
Swine need quarters which are well-lighted well-aired dry and 
clean. Hogs take cold very easily. Little pigs especially need 
to be kept warm dry and away from drafts if not they are 
likely to have their growth checked or even lose their lives by 
catching cold. Neglect of these simple rules indicates shiftless 
farming and cause great losses 

Every farmer who makes a business of raising pigs will 
find a well built hog house a paying investment. The most 
economical and convenient hog-house has a row of pens along 
each side of a central alley which in larger houses should be 
wide enough to drive through. The pens should be from 5 to 
8 feet wide and from 8 to 12 feet long. The partitions should 
be movable. The floors made of concrete will prevent the 
entrance of rats which are destructive to young pigs. It is not 
uncommon to find hog houses that cost several thousands of 

40 



dollars built with almost no windows for admitting sunshine 
light and air. Through windows in the roof sunlight should 
reach the farthest corners of the building 

Many pig raisers are providing two types of hog houses 
the permanent long house for little pigs in winter and small 
individual cots for the sow and her litter as soon as the litter 
are old enough to be put out of doors. These individual cots are 
frnada 6 by 10 feet or 8 by 8 feet in the shape of a letter A. 
These houses are built on skids so that they may be moved 
from pasture to pasture. They have doors at each end and the 
roof or sides are fitted with hinges so that when roof is laid 
back the entire interior is exposed to the sunlight. The portable 
hog house is easily and economically constructed it can easily 
be moved and put wherever desired and of all the systems of 
housing swine it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the 
simplest workmanship is needed to build the house and much 
old lumber may be worked into it 

Pact Hogs need as clean wholesome well-lighted quarters as other 
animals 

Words to be defined 

dungeon suffice shelter 

shiftless economical 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Feeding hogs 

2 Aim To learn how to feed hogs 

3 Home questions 

a Name the farmers who allow pigs to run on pasture 

b If any farmers grow rape or clover for hogs learn 
about it 

c Find the profit desired from 

1 Raising a hog in pens 

2 On pasture 

d Is city garbage fed to pig near the school? 

e Learn how and what the farmers of the neighborhood 
feed their pigs 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Why do hogs root in the ground?' Answer For roots 
and worms 

b Ask the grain man to give a sample of the dry mush 
prepared for hogs. Have the names of the ingredients 
as found on the bag brought to school 

5 For reading and study 

"Feeding of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

41 




Individual or colony hog house 

First and Second April Lessons 
Feeding Hogs 

When compared with other farm stock which produces meat 
the hog consumes less food for its weight than any other animal. 
To produce ioo pounds of increase in weight the steer will con- 
sume I ioo pounds of dry food the sheep 910 but the hog needs 
only 420. A great many people who raise hogs make the mis- 
take of keeping their pigs too long in order to fatten them 

A pig weighing under 100 pounds will require less than 300 
pounds of food to make the next 100 pounds of increase while 
a pig weighing 300 pounds will use 500 pounds of feed to pro- 
duce the next 100 pounds of increase. There is therefore a 
decided economy in raising hog to weigh 175 to 250 pounds only 

The food for pigs is milk for the first two or three weeks. 
When they are this age they will begin to nibble on shelled corn. 
By the time they are from 3 to 4 weeks old they may also be 
fed a small amount of skim-milk three parts in which has been 
mixed a little ground feed such as middlings one part. If skim- 
milk is not available a mixture of five parts corn meal four 
parts middlings and one part tankage fed as a slop is good. This 
should be placed in a creep that is a little pen into which the 

42 



little pigs will go but the mother may not. The amount of mixed 
feed and shelled corn may be increased until they are ten weeks 
old when they should be weaned. It is very desirable that little 
pigs at this time be allowed to run upon a clover or rape pasture 
if possible. At all events let them run where they may get 
green foodi. On pasture more corn may be fed while if con- 
fined -more soft feeds will have to be supplied. Up to the age of 
6 to 7 months old is not the time to fatten pigs but they should 
be fed rations which will build up their bodies rather than lay- 
ing on fat. They need exercise to promote their growth. They 
cannot get this when cooped up in a little pen into which the 
sun beats unmercifully. Sow some clover alfalfa peas rape 
corn and other succulent food and let the pigs "hog it down." 
These are the cheapest and best food between weaning and 
fattening. To this green food add corn and other grain to make 
a balanced, ration. The poorest and most expensive manner to 
grow pigs is to shut them up in a pen and dirty yard and feed 
them a ration of corn alone as is frequently done. Two lots of 
hogs were fed 180 days. At the end of that time the average 
weight of the pigs fed on corn alone was 75 pounds. Those fed 
on corn and alfalfa pasture hay weighed 185 pounds. The farm 
not providing good pasturage for hogs is not ready for the busi- 
ness of making money out of pork. The following are some ra- 
tions for growing pigs which have good pasturage 

1 Corn meal 60% middlings 30% tankage 10% 

2 Corn meal 60% middlings 20% linseed meal 20% 
Quicker and cheaper gains may be made by putting dry 

feeds such as middlings corn meal tankage bran into self feed- 
ers or boxes and letting the pigs on pasture or when fed green 
foods eat these dry foods at any time. Under this dry mash 
system keep fresh water before the pigs at all times. If skimmed 
milk is available keep this before the hogs also 

The old-fashioned way of feeding hogs was to make a slop 
of all the sour skim milk dish water potato peelings apple par- 
ings and other decaying refuse about the farm mixed with a 
little middlings called swill. If swill must be fed have two 
barrels at least. Use one barrel while the other is being scalded 
and stood in the sun to kill the germs. At the same time scald 
out the hogs' trough. Even a pig has as keen a sense of smell 
as most dogs 

Pigs should be ready for fattening when they are about six 
and one half months old. When fattening begins a much larger 
proportion of corn should be fed. At this time corn alone with 
green food and a little milk will be a good ration. When the 
fields are properly fenced off the best way to finish hogs is to 
allow them to do their own harvesting. Turn the hogs into the 
ripening corn. They will eat the stalks and grain giving them 
about the right amount of exercise and saving the farmer the 
labor of husking hauling and feeding. The same amount of 
corn will also produce more pork 

43 



There should be before hogs at all times a mixture of salt 
ashes and charcoal 

Keep the troughs quarters and food clean. There is no 
reason why hogs should be more subject to disease than other 
farm animals. Filth is responsible for four-fifths of the "hog 
cholera" 

Fact -Hogs do not relish sour putrid swill nor does it make as clean 
pork as will good pasturage and grain 

Words to be defined 

consume mixture rations trough 

rape corn husking putrid 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Care and diseases of hogs 

2 Aim To learn how to care for hogs 

3 Home questions 

a Ask some farmer whether hog cholera has ever developed 
in the locality. What was done to cure it? What is 
meant by quarantine? 

b How do farmers of the community rid their sheep and 
hogs of worms? 1 Look up advertisements for prepara- 
tions intended for this purpose 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a What produces rheumatism in hogs? Answer Wet pens 
b Why do some hogs lose the use of their hind legs? 
Answer 1 Lack of bone making material 

2 Lack of exercise 

3 Overfeeding 

c What is mange?' Answer A skin disease. How is it 

cured ? 
d How can hogs be prevented from rooting? 
Answer 1 By putting a ring in the nose 
2 By cutting a nerve in the nose 
e Why do farmers keep hogs on the manure pile? 1 

Answer The working over and trampling of the manure 
prevents heating and spoiling. It is not healthy 
for the hogs 

5 For reading and study 

'ICare and Diseases of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm 
Stock 

Third and Fourth April Lessons 

Care and Diseases of Hogs 

Swine of all ages should be kept free from lice and other 
insects. Some swine growers in order to free hogs from these 
insects construct dipping vats io to 12 feet square and about 10 
inches deep. They may be built of concrete or timber. These 
vats should be partially filled with water and a quart of one of 
the coal tar hog dips added. The hogs will get into this for the 
purpose of keeping cool during the hot summer days and at the 
same time spread over their bodies the oily substance _ which 
tends to destroy lice. No harm will come to the hogs if they 
drink some of the liquid. If a vat cannot be built this dip 
materal should be sprayed over or rubbed on the back and be- 
hind the ears of the hog 

44 



Some successful hog men heartily favor hog wallows but 
when these mud holes are allowed to become filthy a vat as 
described above is preferable since it may be cleaned frequently. 
Pigs must have some means for keeping cool and ridding them- 
selves of flies. Mud and water which is kept from becoming 
filthy will help keep hogs in good condition 

Hogs do not seem to have quite so many ailments as do 
horses cattle and sheep but there are two or three prevalent 
diseases which are a scourge to the breed. The most dreaded 
of these are hog cholera swine plague and tuberculosis. In the 
corn belt of the United States the loss caused by these diseases 
is not equalled by any other class of disease affecting farm 
animals. They are all contagious or infectious germ diseases 
and therefore with proper sanitary measures they may be pre- 
vented. If the animals once become afflicted there is no cure. 
Sometimes swine breeders or feeders will have a drove ready for 
market when hog cholera will attack the herd and in a few 
weeks the entire drove will be dead 

The effects of hog cholera are so marked in its symptoms 
that it is not difficult to distinguish it from most other hog dis- 
eases. In hog cholera the lymphatic glands lungs intestines 
kidneys and liver are highly inflamed. The appetite is lost the 
gait becomes staggering and the eyes inflamed. Not unfre- 
quently bleeding at the nose and vomiting occur. As the dis- 
ease reaches its height red or purplish blotches are likely to 
appear upon the skin of the ears of the belly and on the inner 
surface of the legs. The first one of the herd to be taken with 
this disease will usually die within a few days. Those that take 
the disease later may live several weeks or even recover. Those 
that do recover will never again be attacked by the disease. It 
is this fact which led scientists to discover means for inoculat- 
ing hogs with the germs which give the animals a mild case of 
the disease. A serum taken from hogs which have survived the 
disease is injected into the hog. This second injection contains 
substance which combat the disease and build up a protective 
system against the disease in the body of the hog making them 
immune for life. If little pigs are purchased for pig projects 
ask that the pigs be given the "simultaneous inoculation" treat- 
ment before they are purchased 

Tubercular cattle are the principal sources of tuberculosis 
in hogs the disease being transmitted by feeding hogs upon the 
unpasturized (meaning uncooked) milk by allowing hogs to 
work in the manure from tubercular cows or by feeding un- 
cooked city garbage. Tuberculosis in its early stages cannot be 
easily detected and only when the animals are killed can one be 
sure the hogs are infected. It is best to dispose of the entire 
herd troubled with the disease to some slaughter house where 
the Federal inspector may dispose of the carcasses in the best 
manner 

45 



Thumps is a disease which 'affects the breathing of little 
pigs. It is usually a digestve trouble caused by over feeding 
and the lack of exercise. The best preventative for thumps is to 
give plenty of opportunity for exercising on a pasture well 
stocked with green food 

Scours or too great laxness in the digestive tract are caused 
in young pigs by over feeding sour food dirty troughs or some 
other unsanitary condition connected with their eating 

Worms are a great source of trouble in raising pigs. While 
feeding on dirty floors pigs pick up certain kinds of worms 
which continue to live in the digestive tracts of the animal. Pigs 
do not thrive when troubled with worms. The coat is rough 
growth is hindered and a large proportion of the feed is wasted. 
A simple remedy is to give one teaspoon of turpentine to every 
60 to 80 pounds of hog. Repeat the dose in three days. Starve 
the animal for 12 hours before giving the dose 

Fact Most hog diseases may be prevented by cleanliness 

Words to be defined 

vat lice herd laxness 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Milk 

2 Aim To learn the value and quality of milk 

3 Home questions 

a Do any farmers of the locality use milking machines? 
Take the class or send some pupil to visit a farm using 
one. Have an account of the visit read to the class 

b What prices are the farmers receiving for milk? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Where are the nearest milk stations or creameries? Have 
an account read of a visit to those places 

b Why are all milk cans scalded with steam at creamery? 
Answer To kill bacteria 

5 For reading and study 

"Milk" Readings in Agrictulture Farm Stock 

First May Lesson 

Milk 

Milk is one of the commonest articles of diet. In dairy 
regions each person consumes on an average of one pint of milk 
per day. It contains all the food elements necessary for growth. 
Milk not only ranks high in nutritive value but unlike vegetables 
it is almost completely digested. Milk is also a very cheap food. 
Four pounds of milk (about 2 qts) will build the same amount 
of tissue as 1 pound of sirloin steak and 5 pounds of skim milk 
contains as much nourishment as a pound of the best beef 

46 



One quart of milk equals 
1.7 lbs bananas 



Approximate equivalents 



2.9 lbs oranges 
8 eggs 2.4 lbs apples 

3% lbs cabbage 24 lb beefsteak 

2 lbs chicken 

One pound of cheese equals 

4.4 lbs chicken 2 lb beefsteak 

20 eggs 5.6 lbs apples 

4 lbs bananas 

A safe milk supply demands 

1 the cow must be healthy 

2 milk must be handled by healthy people 

3 the cows must be kept clean 

4 utensils must be properly cleaned 

5 the milk should be thoroughly cooled. 

The only disease to be feared in cows is tuberculosis which 
may be determined by having a veterinarian give the tuberculin 
test. There is however a danger in having people handle milk 
who have or have had tuberculosis typhoid fever scarlet fever 
and diphtheria. These germ diseases will often be carried in the 
milk from people infected with these diseases 

Most of the dirt which gets into the milk comes from the 
cow's body during milking. It is rare that the milk of the cow 
itself is impure or diseased. Germs are found in milk usually 
because they have dropped into it from the air of dirty barns or 
been carried into it by the filth and dirt falling from the sides of 
the cow into the pail 

The open top milk pail should never be used. Milk will 
contain far less dirt and disease if milked into a pail having a 
cover built up 6 inches and rounded over the top. The milk is 
then let into the pail through a hold in the side of the rounded 
cover. The cow should never be milked by people having dirty 
hands nor should these hands ever come in contact with the milk 

One of the greatest labor saving devices and preventative 
of disease is the milking machine. It is practically impossible 
for dust and dirt to enter the machine and the whole question 
of sanitation depends upon whether the pipes and pails are 
thoroughly cleaned after each milking 

After the cows have been milked the milk should be cooled 
to a temperature of 50 degrees by running it over a cooler inside 
of which is ice-water 

Milk is an opaque yellowish-white fluid which is made from 
the blood of cows in its udder by some unknown process. Every 
100 pounds of average milk contains 87^ pounds of water 3.2 
pounds of protein 3.9 pounds of fat 5.1 pounds of carbohydrate 
.7 pounds of salts. Protein is present in the milk in the form 

47 



of casein and albumin. Casein is the curd formed in milk when 
it sours. The greater part of cheese is curd and contains the 
protein. The carbohydrate occurs as milk sugar. Together 
with the casein it gives skimmed milk and butter milk their 
value as foods. Milk sugar is separated from the milk by- 
evaporating the whey. The salts supply the minerals needed in 
the bone 

For commercial purposes several grades of milk are now 
recognized. Among these are 

i certified milk or milk produced under all conditions 
necessary to avoid infection. Among the require- 
ments for certified milk are tuberculin tested cows 
proper ventilation thorough washing and cleaning of 
the stables and cows and the sanitary handling and* 
bottling of the milk 

2 Inspected or cleaned raw milk from healthy cows as 
determined by the tuberculin test and physical exam- 
ination the milk being kept at a low temperature and 
restricted as to the number of bacteria it may contain 

3 Pasteurized milk from dairies not able to comply with 
the requirements of certified and inspected milk the 
cow must show no sign of tuberculosis or other dis- 
ease. Pasteurizing consists in warming milk to 145 
degrees for 40 or 50 minutes by which process nearly 
all of the bacteria whch caused disease and quick sour- 
ing of milk are destroyed 

4 Cooking milk or milk not produced under close regula- 
tion and not pasteurized and of such poor quality that 
it cannot be sold excepting for cooking purposes 

Fact Freshly drawn milk is pure. The dairy man is responsible for 
allowing bacteria to enter it 

Words to be defined 

nourishment utensils veterinary 

bacteria pasteurize 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic The Babcock Tester and its use 

2 Aim To learn about the Babcock Tester 

3 Home questions 

Secure a Babcock milk tester if possible from some farmer 
or creamery. Every school in a dairy section should own 
an outfit. Many farmers would be glad to pay for having 
milk tested. A four bottle outfit may be purchased for less 
than $5 

4 Work for home or school activity 

How much butter fat is produced by a cow which gives 

10,000 pounds of average milk in a year? 

Answer 3.9% x 10,000 pounds = Fat— 390 pounds 

1 pound of butter fat will produce 1.2 pounds of butter 

How many pounds of butter will the cow produce in a year? 

Answer 459 pounds of butter 

5 For reading and study 

"The Babcock Tester and its Use" Readings in Agricul- 
ture Farm Stock 

48 



Second May Lesson 
The Babcock. Tester and Its Use 

Some instances of high producing cows have been given in 
previous lessons. Every farmer should know which cows of his 
herd are producing a profit and which are merely being kept as 
boarders. The farmer should know actually how many pounds 
of milk his cows give each year. It will not do to guess at it. 
The only manner in which this may be determined is by weigh- 
ing the milk each day. Every farmer should have a set of dairy 
scales suspended behind the cows and a record sheet fastened 
to the wall. After every milking the number of pounds given 
by each cow should be recorded and the totals found for each 
month. The little time needed for this is more than repaid in 
the knowledge that the actual production and profitableness of 
every cow is accurately known. A fairly certain knowledge of 
the cow's yield may be secured however if milk is weighed only 
once a week night and morning. It cannot be too strongly urged 
that this amount of record work be done in every dairy barn. 
To note the amount of milk produced is but half of what every 
farmer should know concerning his cows. At nearly all cream- 
eries and milk stations farmer's checks depend not only upon 
the quantity but upon the richness in butter fat of the milk 
which he brings. A farmer cannot tell accurately the richness 
of his cow's milk unless he uses the Babcock test. He is much 
more likely to be wrong in this guess than when he guesses 
about quantity of milk. The amount of cream on the milk is not 
a safe-guide because some cream contains twice the butter fat 
that is found in other creams seemingly as rich. Cows of the 
same breed differ widely in the amount of fat in their milk. It 
is necessary to test each cow's milk or have it tested at the 
creamery or school to know what kind of milk she gives 

If a cow in a herd gives 6,000 pounds of milk per year it is 
considered a good cow. Her milk however may test 3% of 
butter fat. Another cow giving only 4,000 pounds may test 5%. 
The second is decidedly the more profitable inasmuch as a bonus 
is usually given at all creameries for each additional 10th of 1% 
of butter fat above the standard. A farmer who uses the scales 
for quantity and the Babcock test for quality can tell which of 
his cows pay for her keep and turns a profit. Many a farmer 
by adopting these devices has learned that he has paid for the 
privilege of milking 700 times a year because his cows have 
actually eaten more than the money he has received in milk pro- 
duced. Every school especially every country school should 
have a Babcock milk tester. On account of its simplicity and 
accuracy this tester has become the standard for determining 
the value of milk and cream. Some inexpensive machines may 
be bought from supply and mail order houses and will be found 
invaluable in determining the worth of cows to the farmer 
Directions for using the tester come with every machine and 

49 





Milk scales 



Babcook tester for a small herd or 




4-Bottle Hand Tester 

should be carefully studied and closely followed. The directions 
for using the machine need not be given here but the teacher 
and pupils will find no difficulty in using it if the directions sent 
with the tester are carefully followed 

There is a device on the market which is used to show the 
amount of dirt or sediment in a sample of milk. The apparatus 
consists of a metal cylinder about 2 inches in diameter and 6 
inches long in the bottom of which is a piece of copper pierced 
with many small holes the top is fitted with a cover and a rubber 
bulb which when squeezed forces a sample of milk in the cylinder 
through a filter or disk of cotton placed over the metal plate at 
the bottom. The cotton filter is so fine and dense that all the 
sediment in the sample is collected on its surface. It then can 
be removed and the cleanliness of the milk judged by the amount 
and character of the dirt 

Milk powder is becoming a valuable product where it is im- 
possible to ship milk long distances in its liquid form. The water 
is evaporated in various ways from liquid milk and the result is 
milk powder. It is liked much in baking and is used often 
directly with flour. There is much demand for dried milk by 
confectionery establishments by bakers and in the army 



50 



Two kinds of condensed milk are prepared— sweetened and 
unsweetened— the sweetened is preserved with cane sugar Both 
forms are sterilized with steam under pressure and evaporated 
until a suitable degree of thickness is secured. The unsweetened 
condensed milk is not concentrated to quite the same decree as 
the sweetened. Both forms if properly manufactured and canned 
will keep for years 

Fact The Babcock tester has developed the science of dairying more 
than any other invention 

Words to be defined 

profit creamery test bonus 

apparatus filter 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Dairy products 

2 Aim To learn about dairy products 

. 3 Home questions 

Why are milk bottling machines likely to cause milk to sour 
quickly? Answer Unless thoroughly cleaned germs re- 
main in joints and pipes 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Have 6 samples of milk brought to school in sterilized 
small bottles each having a cork made from absorbent 
cotton 

Aim To show the effect of dirt in the keeping qualities of milk 
Bottle 1 Set aside at room temperature 

2 Add a few hairs taken from cow's body 

3 Add a piece of dusty cobweb 
'! 4 Add some hay dust 

5 Expose for a few minutes in an open pail to dust after sweep- 
ing 

6 Add two or three small pieces of hay 

Shake well. Set all aside for 4 or 5 days, and note time of curding 
and odor and appearance of each curd. Compare with untreated sample. 
Changes are due to bacteria carried on the added dirt 

b Have sample of cottage cheese made in school or at home 
Describe how it was made 

5 For reading and study 

"Dairy Products" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

Third and Fourth May Lessons 

Dairy Products 

Thousands of years ago even before the time of Abraham 
Isaac and Jacob cows goats and horses were kept for the skins 
their bodies gave for clothing milk and food. Milk in those 
early days was churned into butter or made into cheese. The 
Arabs ftrst discovered the art of butter making by carrying milk 
in goats skins on camel's backs. The milk rolled back and forth 
on the animal's back until the fat globules collected and butter 
resulted 

51 



There are three ways of separating butter fat commonly 
called cream from the milk. The shallow pan method where 
the cream is skimmed from the top of the milk by means of a 
spoon or ladle. The deep setting method where cans of milk 
are set in ice-water and the milk drawn off from under the cream 
after it has risen and the third method is the cream separator 
by far the most economical of the three. The milk and the 
cream are separate because in this machine the milk is whirled 
in a bowl at a high rate of speed. The heavier part of the milk 
which is the water is drawn towards the circumference of the 
bowl and the lighter part or the cream is drawn off near the 
center. The saving in butter from the milk of one cow is over 
25 pounds per year when a separator is used instead of the 
shallow pan system 

Cream only is used in making butter. Commonly the 
cream is first ripened that is it is kept at a temperature of 60 
and 75 degrees for about 12 hours for the proper bacteria to 
multiply. In factories where much butter is made the cream is 
ripened by a "starter" (lactic acid bacteria) which gives to all 
the cream an even ripeness. At the end of this time the cream 
is slightly sour smooth and glossy and it is ready for churning 
a process which combines the butter fat and parts of other mate- 
rials into granules or lumps the size of wheat grains. The 
butter is now removed from the churn washed in cold water 
worked salted and placed in tubs or made up into 1 pound pack- 
ages to sell 

The most common kind of American cheese is called Ched- 
der. This is made by curdling the casein of milk by the use of 
rennet a substance secured from the fourth stomach of a calf. 
The milk or cream is then heated in a vat until hardened. When 
the whey has been strained off the curd is cut salted pressed 
and cured. Cottage cheese is merely the curd of milk that has 
been curdled without the use of rennet. This kind of cheese is 
eaten fresh. Ninety-five per cent of the nutrients in cheese are 
digested when eaten. Limburger cheese is the result of adding 
certain kinds of bacteria to the cheese while it is ripening. Swiss 
cheese is flavored with herbs. In France the delicious Roque- 
fort is made the milk of both the sheep and cow being used. The 
cheese is made by mixing clotted milk with moistened bread. 
The mixture is placed into porcelain molds with holes in the 
sides. It is then dried and salted in a peculiar manner and 
placed to mature in caves in the mountains. The round red 
cheeses are made in Holland: and are called Edam cheese. 
Camembert is a French cheese sold in small flat round boxes. 
It is soft with a fine flavor of creamy interior. In all 150 kinds 
of cheeses are made in various parts of the world 

One of the valuable products of milk liked by nearly all 
people is ice cream. Ice cream is usually a mixture of frozen 
milk cream sugar and a flavoring material. To this mixture 
are often added eggs corn starch and gelatine. Ice cream is 

52 



highly nutritious and is an excellent food if clean materials are 
handled in a sanitary manner during the process of manufactur- 
ing 

Fact The dairy products from one cow are worth more than the meat 

produced from five beef cattle 
Words to be defined 

cream separator churn casein 

nutrient sanitary 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Calves 

2 Aim To learn how to feed calves 

3 Home questions 

a What is meant by veal calf? 

b On which do calves seem to thrive the best on milk on 

a home mixed calf food or a prepared calf meal?' 
c Why is a Jersey calf thought to be more difficult to raise 

than Holstein calves? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Start the discussion about raising a calf for a home 

project 
b Make a rope halter for a calf 

5 For reading and study 

"Calves" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

First June Lesson 
Calves 

Raising a calf is an excellent project for boys and girls to 
undertake. Much care must be given the little creature but it 
is a pleasure to see it grow from day to day into a fine healthy 
stocky animal 

It is especially important that the calf get its first or colo- 
strum milk from its dam. This milk is very necessary for the 
health of the calf. The calf should be allowed to suck the dam 
a few times. Some recommend until the milk is fit for human 
consumption which is usually after the eighth or ninth milking. 
Others recommend the separating of the calf and mother after 
the second day, since the calf may more easily be taught to drink 

When feeding by hand there is much danger of giving the 
calf too much to eat causing serious digestive troubles such as 
scours or indigestion. A great deal of this stomach trouble is 
also often caused by not having the feeding bucket thoroughly 
sweet and clean.' It is best to feed the cow's mother for three 
weeks using from i to i/ 2 gallons per day fed at frequent in- 
tervals. Then change to skimmed milk taking about a month and 
substituting exactly y 2 pound of skim milk for whole milk morn- 
ing and night. Mixed with the skimmed milk for a time should 
be some grain which will replace the fat removed from the milk. 
Flaxseed seems to be one of the best for this purpose. Cook 
the flaxseed in water in the proportion of I to 6 by volume. At 
first add tea cup full of the mixture which should be jelly like 

53 



to nine or ten quarts of skimmed milk. Increase the quantity 
of meal until in four weeks I pound per day is being fed. The 
temperature of the milk should be 90 to 95 degrees. The calf 
must be taught to drink by putting a couple of fingers into its 
mouth gradually lowering its head into the pail of milk. There 
let it learn to drink by sucking some of the milk between the 
fingers. It will not be long before your patience will be rewarded 
and the calf will readily drink. At about two weeks old the"calf 
will begin to nibble on some bright clover hay if placed before 
it. It will also eat a little grain if some of it is placed on its 
tongue. At six weeks old the calf should be eating one pound 
daily of the following ration. Three parts corn meal 3 parts 
ground oats 3 parts wheat bran 1 part linseed meal. Feed this 
grain after the calf has finished drinking its milk. Never let 
the grain sour in the feed box. At five months old the calf 
should be taking not more than 20 pounds of skimmed milk per 
day 

If skimmed milk is scarce calves may be raised as follows. 
Let the calf stay with the dam until four or five days old when 
it should be bucket fed. At seven days of age 6 or 7 tablespoons 
full of the following home mixed calf meal may be put with the 
milk. (Equal parts by weight of hominy feed linseed meal red 
dog flour and dried blood.) Increase this material and mix 
with water in the proportion of one part meal to 7 parts water. 
As this mixture increases decrease the whole milk until at five 
weeks of age it is receiving about 18 to 20 ounces of meal per 
day in 4^ quarts of water. Teach the calf to eat ground oats 
and corn clover hay and corn silage or let it run on pasture 

No more grain should be fed than the calf will eat up clean 
at each feeding. Feed all the hay and water the calf will con- 
sume 

Fact Whole and skimmed milk contains a substance called vitamines 

without which young animals will die 
Words to be defined 

flaxseed vitamines interval 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Rabbits and hares 

2 Aim To learn the value and breeds of rabbits and hares 

3 Home questions 

a Who keeps rabbits in the town? 

b What damage will rabbits do to young trees in winter?' 

Answer Gnaw the bark 
c What use may be made of the skin of rabbits? 
d Find some recipes for cooking rabbit meat 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a How may rabbits skins be tanned? 

b If pupils in the school keep rabbits have them tell where 

and how they secured their stock 
c Have interested pupils build rabbit hutches and bring 

them to school for exhibition 

5 For reading and study 

"Rabbits and Hares" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 



54 



Second June Lesson 

Rabbits and Hares 

Since the price of meat has risen to a height where many 
people are unable to purchase the better cuts, a substitute which 
will afford cheap meat is sure to be accepted. The people of 
Europe eat large quantities of horse meat but Americans do not 
relish the idea of adopting this substitute. A far more promis- 
ing meat animal is the rabbit which both wild and domesticated 
has long been used extensively as food in Europe and. to a com • 
paratively small degree in this country. There are four animals 
which may be kept by thrifty people to convert farm and garden 
green food into meat the chicken the goat the pig and the 
rabbit. Any one of the first three are likely to become a nuis- 
ance in thickly settled communities unless great care is taken 
but scores of wholesome silent rabbits may easily be kept on a 
city lot without the slightest offence 

There are about 20 varieties of rabbits of which seven be- 
cause of size are classified as utility rabbits. These seven com- 
prise three types represented by the so called "Giants" Belgian 
hares and New Zealand Red rabbits 

The giants according to their color are named gray steel 
gray checkered and solid colored as black white or steel. All 
are long-bodied and massive weighing when adult from 11 to 
12 pounds each. Giants are mature when about 15 months old. 
Those raised for meat purposes are sold before attaining full 
size as the flesh of young rabbits is preferred to that of old 
ones. They grow rapidly withstand cold weather and when a 
heavy type of rabbit is demanded they are highly recommended 

The Belgian hare is a slender muscular graceful animal 
weighing about 8 pounds. The color of the Belgian hare varies 
from a bright orange brown or tan to mahogany varied by a 
mingling of black hairs which gives the effect known as ticking. 
The "Rufus Red" Belgian conforms to the American standard 
as to color which is a dark cherry-red or mahogany uniform over 
head ears chest feet back and sides varied by scattered black 
hairs 

A third type of utility rabbits is the New Zealand red 
animal intermediate in size and form between the Flemish and 
the Belgian. The back and sides of this breed are clear reddish 
buff free from black hairs. ' At maturity which is attained in 
one year New Zealand breeds should weigh 9 pounds and does 
10 pounds. The doe has a development similar to that of the 
Giants 
Fact The people of Europe eat great quantities of rabbit meat 

Words to be defined 

domesticated Belgian hare adult 

utility doe 

55 



Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic The care and feeding of rabbits 

2 Aim To learn the care and feeding of rabbits 

3 Home questions 

a How do rabbits get the dirt out of their burrows when 

digging them in the ground? 
b Describe some place at home which might be used for 

keeping rabbits 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Make a list of green foods which may be fed to chickens 
and rabbits 

b How are the people of Australia protecting their con- 
tinent from the ravages of wild rabbits? Answer Erect- 
ing a wire fence entirely across the continent 

c Start the discussion for a rabbit project. Appoint some 
interested pupil to look for stock 

5 For reading and study 

"Care and Feeding of Rabbits" Readings in Agriculture 
Farm Stock 

Third and Fourth June Lessons 
Care and Feeding of Rabbits 

Rabbits may be managed successfully in two ways. Entirely 
in hutches or boxes or in outdoor fenced runs with hutches 
connected. Hutches for the Giants and Belgian should be 
somewhat larger than those intended for smaller breeds. They 
should be built of good lumber have tight floors and have at 
least 12 square feet of floor space and a height of 2 feet 

Each box or hutch is separate. A convenient indoor hutch" 
is one 6 feet by 2 by 2 feet with a movable partition dividing 
off a third of the space at one end for a nest and sleeping quar- 
ters, The partition has a smooth hole to let the rabbits go 
from the nest into the pen yard. The front of the hutch has two 
doors one of wire netting the other of wood. The wooden 
door opens into the sleeping chamber and should close tightly. 
The partition may slide between the doors 

If rabbits are kept on the ground and given a court to run 
in a chicken wire should be let into the ground io to n inches 
deep so that the rabbits may not dig out 

No animal is more adaptable to sudden changes of diet so 
that one can feed what is available or cheap the idea being to 
produce weight with the least possible outlay of money 

The best grain for rabbits is oats either whole or crushed 
though corn meal barley or other grain may often be fed by 
way of change. The crushed oats are best when freshly broken 
and a hand mill for preparing them is a valuable adjunct to a 
rabbitry 

Hay is a necessary part of the rabbit's diet and if possible 
that of the very best quality of clover hay should be used. It 
should be entirely free from moldiness and the unsweated is 
always preferable. If one has small grounds where suitable 

56 



grass grows the mowing may be done at short intervals and 
the hay thoroughly cured in such small quantities that no sweat- 
ing takes place. However if sweet hay is not available the 
sweated may be fed to the rabbits without injury unless it be 
moldy 




A convenient rabbit hutch 

Rabbits require some green foods for winter. Cabbages 
kale spinach and rape leaves are recommended. Turnips beets 
and mangels are often fed and have been recommended by many 
rabbit breeders but they do not keep so well as the foods just 
named unless stored in sand. Beets and mangels keep better 
and the latter are the main dependence of some English rab- 
bitries but on the whole cabbages are more economical as well 
as more satisfactory in every way. They are usually available 
until green stuff grows in the spring. Whatever green food is 
put away for winter use must be stored where frost can not 
touch it as freezing unfits it for rabbits. Parsnips left in the 
ground all winter make an excellent early spring rabbit food 

The general rule is to feed only as much grain or green 
stuff as the animal will consume. Hay is put into the hutch to 
be available at any time. The exact amount of grain or green 
stuff for each rabbit at a meal can not be stated as the appetite 
varies greatly at different times. Observations of the quantity 
left over when the animals quit feeding will soon enable the 
feeder to adjust the meals to the needs of the rabbits. Over- 
feeding is a much more common mistake than underfeeding 

In winter one of the meals each day should be chiefly of 
green food and the other mainly of grain. Roots cabbage celery 
and other green things should be washed clean of soil but should 
not be wet when given to the rabbit. If green food is given in 
the morning the evening meal should be whole oats or other 
grain for mature animals. Those under 3 months of age should 
be given crushed oats with a little bran as they can not so well 
masticate whole grain. Also a little hay should be given with 
each meal 



57 



In summer green food should be the chief reliance and only 
a small quantity of hay or grain is needed. Rabbits are fond" 
of all kinds of garden vegetables besides wild parsley dandelion 
plantain dock and other weeds as well as lawn clippings and' 
other grasses. Agreeable changes in diet are always possible 
in summer but overfeeding should be avoided and also the 
feeding of stuff that is wet with dew or rain. It is best to cut 
clover or other green food in the afternoon before the dew falls 
and to spread it under shelter so that it will not heat but be 
still fresh at feeding time 

Occasionally a warm mash of cooked potatoes or the leaves 
of clover hay mixed with "chops" or a little bran is desirable. 
Sometimes a little sulphur may be sprinkled with the mash al- 
though a little flour mixed with the ordinary grain has about 
as good effect in correcting looseness of the bowels. In cold 
weather some breeders feed a warm mash each evening 

Unless green food is abundant rabbits should be given water 
daily. In warm weather the water pans should be filled with 
fresh water twice a day. The dose suckling young or soon to 
have young should be given milk diluted with one-third warm 
water. A piece of rock salt kept in each hutch affords a steady 
supply as needed and makes it unnecessary to supply salt in the 
food 

Rabbits under 3 or 4 months old should be limited in the 
amount of green food. If allowed too much they are likely to 
become "potbellied." When a young rabbit is seen to grow big 
about its belly the use of green food should be discontinued 
and the animal given plenty of exercise. Under such treatment 
it will soon recover but if the green food is continued the dis- 
ease usually terminates in convulsions and death. Old rabbits 
are not subject to this trouble 

If properly cared for rabbits are remarkably free from 
diseases. The more common ailments result from insanitary 
surroundings lack of care in feeding and improper ventilation. 
The hutches should be cleaned frequently and fresh sawdust or 
other fine litter used to take up liquids so that the hutches do 
not become foul. Such ailments as mange scurf surfeit and 
disease of the eyes known as ophthalmia are due usually to foul 
hutches. Cold snuffles and the like result from improper venti- 
lation sudden drafts of cold air in over-heated buildings and 
similar causes. The disorders of the digestive organs come from 
feeding young rabbits too freely of wet and juicy green foods 
or from too radically changing their diet. Most diseases are 
preventable, and if the cause is understood remedies will sug- 
gest themselves. For pot-belly constipation and_ other ailments 
exercise is the best remedy. If constipation continues a diet of 
soft foods or a little castor oil usually gives relief. For diarrhea 
a little dry barley meal is good and sometimes powdered acorns 
in skim milk are an effective remedy 

58 



Incrustations known as ear canker and accumulations of 
ear wax may be cured by removing the incrustations with the 
aid of lukewarm water and then washing with a soft sponge and 
applying powdered boracic acid. The animal should be held by 
an assistant. The treatment must often be repeated daily 

The most serious disease known among hutch rabbits in 
America is coccidiosis. It is caused by internal parasites and 
when present in the rabbitry kills many young rabbits. Extreme 
caution is needed to prevent its introduction and new stock 
obtained should for a time be kept isolated from the regular 
hutches. Keeping the hutches in stacks aid in spreading the 
infection. Absolute cleanliness may do much to prevent the 
disease. Whenever a number of the young rabbits under good 
care develop a pot-bellied appearance there is reason to suspect 
that old and apparently healthy animals may be afflicted with 
chronic coccidiosis and are expelling cocida from their bodies. 
Isolation of the affected hutch and its occupants together with 
disinfection is the first step to be taken while the exact nature 
of the trouble is being determined 

Fact Rabbits may be grown in locations and on premises where other 
live stock would not be permitted 

Words to be defined 

partition diet adjunk 

mangels mash diluted surfeit chronic 

disinfection 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Bees 

2 Aim To learn how to rear bees 

3 Home questions 

a What are some of the uses of bees-wax? 
b Why does the spot swell where a bee has stung? 
Answer Acid poisoning 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a If possible have a beekeeper visit the school and tell 

about his beekeeping experiences 
b Have some of the pupils visit an apiary and write a 

story of their visit 

5 For reading and study 

"Bees" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

First and Second July Lessons 

Bees 

Bees are one of the most helpful insects which man may 
use. Every person who owns an orchard should have one or 
two hives of bees. The fruit blossoms are pollonized in the 
spring by the bees and wind. Should the spring happen to be 
damp the bees will be the principle factors in securing a good" 
set of fruit. Black or wild bees are seldom kept since Italian 
bees have been developed 

59 



With the passing of the black bees from the apiary also 
went the box hives, since it is much more convenient to take 
honey from the new hives built with moveable sections. When 
plants are in flower they have a substance called nectar which 
when worked over by the bees is known as honey. This sub- 
stance is deposited in the combs of the hives and loses its sur- 
plus water by evaporation. Honey is the food which supplies 
food to bees over winter and upon which the young bees feed 

Young bees just hatched would surely die if not carefully 
looked after by nurse bees. These nurse bees prepare in their 
stomach what is called bee bread for the tiny bees and feed it 
to them for the first two or three days after which ^ ordinary 
honey is substituted for it. A most curious thing happens when 
the grubs or infant bees have grown a little. A small amount 
of food placed in the cell with it and the cell sealed up with wax. 
The grub sleeps for thirteen days when it breaks open its skins 
and gnaws the cover of the cell. It is now a full grown bee 

A queen bee lays from a few to hundreds of eggs per day 
depending upon the amount of honey in the hives. Usually 
there is but one queen in a colony. In the spring the worker 
bees decide that there should be new queens and proceed to 
build queen cells. The larva of a worker bee is fed a special 
substance called royal jelly and soon develops into another 
queen. The first thing observed is fighting between the new 
queens. They keep it up until only one of the new queens is 
left. When this occurs the old queen of the hive issues forth 
and taking with her a host of worker bees to start a new colony. 
This is called swarming. The old queen should always have her 
wings clipped. If this is done the swarm will not leave the 
apairy. A empty hive should be ready into which a new swarm 
may be placed. There is little danger of being stung at this time 
for the bees are so full of honey that it is nearly impossible for 
them to use their stingers. The worker bees in the new hive 
immediately set to work to manufacture wax from the honey 
brought with them. This is made into cells. The cells arejised 1 
for storing honey and in which the eggs are hatched. Suc- 
cessful bee keepers place wax made in strong sheets in frames 
from which the bees manufacture their cells. A great deal of 
honey and time is saved by this method 

Fact Bees are useful to man to pollenize fruit blossoms and producing 
honey 

Words to be defined 

apiary colony of bees swarming cell 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Care and diseases of bees 

2 Aim To learn how to care for bees 

3 Home questions „,., 

Have someone find out how to track bees to their wild home 
in a tree 

60 



4 Work for home or school activity 

a Bring some dead bees to school and note the coloring of 

the Italian bees 
b Secure a hive of bees for a school project. The hive may 

be kept in the room with an entrance made to fit into the 

window or kept in the school yard or in a nearby yard 
c Have some boys secure a modern hive for a model and 

make a hive for the school. The interior fittings may be 

secured from 

A I Root Co Medina Ohio 

5 For reading and study 

"(Care and Diseases of Bees" Readings in Agriculture Farm 
Stock 

Third and Fourth July Lessons 

Care and Diseases of Bees 

Various kinds of hives are on the market to-day. Prac- 
tically all modern hives are good. The common requirements 
are that the hives should have a moveable roof and a moveable 
comb frame. Most hives are built in two compartments — an 
upper and a lower story — in the bottom compartment the queen 
lays her eggs and considerable honey is stored for winter. The 
upper compartment is the place in which the bees store the sur- 
plus honey 

In good seasons these bees not only gather much honey for 
winter food but also provide considerable surplus which gives to 
the beekeeper his profit for looking after the hives. Some times 
during a long winter or when the bees have not stored sufficient 
honey to carry them through the winter they must be fed. This 
may be done by suppyling bee candy. It is made by boiling to- 
gether sugar and water until it forms a soft cake upon cooling. 
This cake may be put into a super which the top story of the 
hive is called directly over the frames. The bees will soon carry 
it down 

There are three kinds of honey on the market chunk sec- 
tion-comb and extracted honey. Chunk honey is cut out from 
the frames and packed in jars. Section-comb honey is made by 
the bees in boxes of I pound each. Extracted honey is made in 
large frames both in the hive and above in the super and when 
ready to be removed is drawn from the combs with a machine 
called an extractor 

There are two methods of wintering bees — indoor and out- 
door. In cool climates where there is freezing weather between 
December and March without any warm days the hives are 
usually placed in the cellars. Where there are occasional warm 
days in winter in which bees may fly the hives may be left out 
of doors. They should be protected however by building around 
them an extra wall and filling the space between the hives and 
the wall with leaves saw dust or other material. Hives covered 
with building or tar paper will in some climates be sufficent with- 
out using double walls 

61 



Dysentery A winter disease due to a long low temperature 
and bad food is usually cured by a free flight in the spring 

American foul brood A bacterial disease which reaches 
healthy larvae in infected food. Grubs settled to the lower side 
of the cell in shapeless yellowish masses which later turns brown 
sticky and ill smelling. In European foul brood also bacterial 
the larvae turn yellowish or gray. To cure infected comb honey 
must be removed in- the evening during a honey flow and healthy 
food given. Brood from badly diseased colonies should be 
burned at once the combs melted in the wax the hives cleaned 
and disinfected by slightly charring the inside with a gasoline 
torch 

Fact A hive of bees may make from 50 to 100 pounds of surplus honey 
in good seasons 

Words to be defined 

hives surplus chunk larvae 

disinfected comb frame 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Pastures 

2 Aim To learn how to care for pastures 

3 'Home questions 

a Make a list of the grasses which will grow on wet and 

dry pastures 
b Why should cows be kept off the pastures in early spring 

Answer Tramples and kills grass roots 
c Name the farmers of the community who rotate their 

pastures 

e g Pasture meadows after cutting hay for three or 
four years 
d What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a 

practice? 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a What animals will browse down brush and weeds in a 

pasture? 1 

Answer Goats and sheep 
b Why are woods so often used for pastures? 

Answer Ground is too rough for other purposes 

5 For reading and study 

"Pastures" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

First and Second August Lessons 

Pastures 

In many sections of the country hay is the chief money 
crop. But few farmers have attempted to increase the yield of 
the meadows and pastures by methods similar to those employed 
to increase grain. The statement is made that the same amount 
of money used for the purchase of fertilizer for grass lands will 
bring a greater profit than when applied to field crops. In a 
rotation hay is usually cut for three years when the field is 
turned in to pastures for two years. A good pasture should be 
thoroughly and evenly covered with plants that will form a sod 



62 



of such a nature as not to be injured by the tramping of animals 
or be checked in its growth by too close cropping. Pastures on 
most New England farms usually receive little attention. In 
but few cases have the pastures been artificially seeded. The 
pastures as a rule are rough partly grown up with trees ferns 
and hardhack. To sow expensive mixtures of grass seeds in 
such pastures would be unwise. But many of our best farmers 
are no longer satisfied with pastures of this description. To 
have the best results the pastures should be good so that the 
cows' wall find the needed food within a few hours and have 
time for rest and chewing the cud. Nearly all New England 
pastures are sorely in need of lime a state indicated by the 
absence of clover and the thick covering of mosses and sorrel 
which are to be found on many of them. It is almost unneces- 
sary to say that bushes and weeds should not be tolerated in a 
good pasture. If the soil is so rough and rocky that ploughing 
cannot be done it may be possible to spread lime and fertilizer 
and a mixture of grass seed on the surface and to harrow or 
possibly cultivate them in. A cheap grass mixture for a reno- 
vated pasture is a mixture of three pounds Timothy five pounds 
Red Top five pounds Alsike Clover two pounds White Clover 
three pounds Sweet Clover. This will help to increase the 
grass yield and to bring in the legumes which are so necessary 
for milk production 

A grass seed mixture for land which is to cut hay for three 
years and to be pastured for two years is given below 

timothy 6 lb 

meadow fercue 4 lb 

orchard grass 4 lb 

Kentucky blue grass 4 lb 

red top 2 lb 

alsike clover 2 lb 

white clover 2 lb 

N alfalfa 2 lb 

Occasionally run the weeder or harrow over the pasture to 
break up the manure chips 

Fact A well-kept pasture saves time money and labor tor every dairy- 
man 

Words to be defined 

pasture artificially hardhack cud 

timothy legumes 

Assignment in preparation for next lesson 

1 Topic Soiling crops 

2 Aim To learn how to soil crops 

3 Home questions . . 

a Name the farmers of the. community who sow grain tor 

summer pastures 
b Make a list of those farms where the permanent pastures 

need supplementing with soiling crops 

4 Work for home or school activity 

a Learn at what stage of growth the green crops are cut 

5 For reading and study . 

"Soiling Crops" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 

63 



Third and Fourth August Lessons 

Soiling Crops 

Many of the New England pastures are so situated on poor 
thin upland soil that during the hot summer weather they often 
dry. In such a case feeding of green crops called soiling must 
be resorted to in order to keep up the flow of milk. Soiling is 
profitable because more feed may be produced per acre than by 
pasturing. The animals may be" kept in greater comfort in the 
barn protected from the flies and from the intense heat of the 
sun 

Manure is saved if cows are to be kept in the barn during 
the entire summer. The following plan for sowing and harvest- 
ing a soiling crop is given below. If it is believed that pastures 
will be short during a particular time of the year such parts of 
this scheme may be used as will best fit the need. The great 
expense incurred in planting cutting and drawing these crops 
to the barn is a hindrance to their general use 

Summer Forage Crops for 10 cows 



kind 



seed for an acre 



approximate 
time of 
seeding 



Wheat or rye 2 bushel 

Grass mixture and 8 lbs clover 8 lbs tall 

clover oat grass 6 lbs orchard 

grass 6 lbs Kentucky 
blue grass 

Clover 15-20 lbs 

Oats and peas li bushel each 

Oats and peas li bushel each 

Oats and peas li bushel each 

Japanese barnyard mil- 8 qts millet, li bushel 
let and peas peas 

Japanese barnyard mil- 
let 14 qts 

Corn and soy beans 10 qts 

Corn and soy beans 10 qts corn, 7 qts beans.. 

Barley and peas li bushel each 



approximate 
time of 
cutting 



Sept 1 


i acre 


May 25-June 8 


Aug 


§ acre 


June 10-June 25 


Aug 


s acre 


June 10-June 25 


April 


i acre 


June 25-July 6 


May 5 


i acre 


July 6-July 17 


May 20 


i acre 


July 17- July 28 


May 15 


i acre 


Aug 1-Aug 10 


May 15 


i acre 


Aug 10-Aug 20 


May 15 


i acre 


Aug 20- Sept 4 


June 5 


i acre 


Sept 4-Sept 20 


July 25-^ Aug 1 


§ acre 


Oct 5-Oct 20 



Fact When summer pastures dry green crops must be fed to cows to 
keep up their milk supply 

Words to be defined 

forage crops approximate barn 



64 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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